tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-36303272533943771762024-03-12T18:44:06.594-07:00History of MedicineSnap shots of History of Medicine
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger15125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-86040868566803686272015-05-26T04:08:00.003-07:002015-05-26T04:08:48.629-07:00Would you go to the surgeon in middle ages?<div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 15px;">
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">Hemorrhoids</strong></li>
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<a href="http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/vVhqefBWsSEb35fo_WSB6V5XfFSfbdRP_9aezQObccE?feat=embedwebsite" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRuYRvMDOWtrZAVzCWQlKFbD37nt8wJ4zUrY3UTt3_kOb1Sj01HkgAR6e80wgIXro4Cq81Lz3nBnSNZalZaJhuXF8YtJB7Z2F8BvgCT2RIj8CQfZEbqKEA-T1ccUX1207MgH6qvwMmAqYG/s400/Hemorroides.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="360" /></a></center>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">Hemorrhoids</strong></li>
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<a href="http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/jrdh_VXXCnt4hyNC2bxRrF5XfFSfbdRP_9aezQObccE?feat=embedwebsite" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="268" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjj5eo0qWxPIJtHm-p6CzsQK8OND-pLFqZVLv1cNILeGJdd9mJ-znJGoqw7fcub-WGpXrKGVMYwZQsEjeeM20hq80utuqKaWMMmGK6V16BNy8n-1b8_ZiEwEn-iZeZ89SGR-P-kZT_fHoIP/s400/Hemorroides2.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="400" /></a></center>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">Cataracts</strong>:</li>
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<a href="http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/zIlG5t8HZMh69Q4K1pVmi15XfFSfbdRP_9aezQObccE?feat=embedwebsite" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuUP8n0TQ8dYMUX7nYZA9vQHQIS1I3ZZOkiaTtHjJrBbqO-fS-kSOTBNsS1M_kKDGCBufmThfbDlGXoFoKK8jdiWLvDHKVH_07NwoLKXFNeUa5k4dCxpxqcKA24T8lVu2OYdG82sAZYCNX/s400/Cataratas.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="400" /></a></center>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><b>Madness</b></li>
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<a href="http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/49ztcISwCe9fPdhoPYoe9F5XfFSfbdRP_9aezQObccE?feat=embedwebsite" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="282" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgr_uszfukthj7uVl7ltVcebiG9pktrZxg5rB3cwojTw4UrXRMZCklqGZ-c8gZWOmejI2BPLWTHKF1QxBht07I_yHsK0-tRE9n_iUcUmzvc6cCYAgUfeK6fQvPJ23LNTAYSD-3YUAwEDZT/s400/locura.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="400" /></a><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><a href="http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/ROCysMEKX_X2RFNw0wC18V5XfFSfbdRP_9aezQObccE?feat=embedwebsite" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1wa9e5fviUCLPYaVhPVTMz339Cny2LV_Lk0k93pkD7Yu-PgbUiXtLfWuHjITEImHiZVwprv0KKAfITdKMw7r3No-ySkDL5nwIhJvKMFkMQ1NvZNlv98xYFF1o7e_XuMowztydAt1aNFPU/s400/trepanaci%C3%B3n.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="277" /></a></center>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><b>Bloody</b></li>
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<a href="http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/SXRWWQBhUm0XNygMPLXjDV5XfFSfbdRP_9aezQObccE?feat=embedwebsite" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="197" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVeXa2A4pbKKCf1LGnawOqhFQPLPbMR0CMKVfTKRSh9Zu-SVtsKnLbkQY_3xJWYYxc_LyYgLl0uGweMFts1VDKfKleFh-xNWTZt7b8-IuraYDVzDYzxOdII6xOXPLWnactJ1pzBuVxc78w/s400/sangr%C3%ADa1.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="400" /></a></center>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><b>Miction difficulties</b></li>
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<a href="http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/fCfIUlnBbjBwjDkCz224Sl5XfFSfbdRP_9aezQObccE?feat=embedwebsite" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzuWRhDS2sMKBIYhwwk4Qmnoz9aV1935_nETYwcMKGmrIeKls3CmrzsXdcEFshAd8jLimB8_Ww9ZsrBG8SfR3QjnRZ0_ESuHzgrv2DsvST0Wh7hxsfx8tKYUm56AVxhTmbUNCGImVFiIiA/s400/Vejiga.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="321" /></a></center>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><b>Cesarea</b></li>
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<a href="http://historiasdelahistoria.com/wordpress-2.3.1-ES-0.1-FULL/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Ces%C3%A1rea.png" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Cesárea" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-12179" height="399" src="http://historiasdelahistoria.com/wordpress-2.3.1-ES-0.1-FULL/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Ces%C3%A1rea.png" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 30px auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="600" /></a></div>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">Dentist</strong>:</li>
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<center style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">
<a href="http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/9qVKEEuF9ZjvY3AsJBmvt15XfFSfbdRP_9aezQObccE?feat=embedwebsite" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzbnYUitdae7chvERcEHf8jbcbq3jMV165dXnPdAVh1zcCSUAykfzLh1fCVJ2x3MjXWjNRiZ0Sls01jLOPQ0pk2xIaFPK9gaxbs7e16qCXRUwtTb7WFeUhqIfhF55o_5qektc2C9TXgTmY/s400/dentista.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="343" /></a><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><a href="http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/TAspOpu3qu7y2tk60WzOwV5XfFSfbdRP_9aezQObccE?feat=embedwebsite" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhw-UQFmHvuWsM_dTbTSMX5P_PIuEHhemjna7WjLOaQY2LemRzjZKdLJvtnri4O3sr37txmyvou_wgqguXRlyryy7XMLGEKsomol_ZYlcgWt1r-14emVk3XLcB-tPVCkwfjhjjTyMoY_K7v/s400/extracci%C3%B3n.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="263" /></a></center>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><b>Amputation</b></li>
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<a href="http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/1ZtUbf21uW0ftxR-pPNf7V5XfFSfbdRP_9aezQObccE?feat=embedwebsite" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="264" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXV_pMvf4sjvLAXpyFwy0t2zbgPS4AqjZWgXW75frLavoag6pUrqlXKSItxjMCZ8GzK8ybbeO25FpfrMg-3bxXHb0Rwc6Yny-Ii4rxTRcy9r_e_RsKrRH5nM_4K1-rLfeq1u9mu2JlPymO/s400/amputaci%C3%B3n.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="400" /></a></center>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><b>Surgery room</b></li>
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<a href="http://historiasdelahistoria.com/wordpress-2.3.1-ES-0.1-FULL/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/quir%C3%B3fano.jpg" style="background: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3facd6; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Quirófano medieval" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-12178" height="480" src="http://historiasdelahistoria.com/wordpress-2.3.1-ES-0.1-FULL/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/quir%C3%B3fano.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 30px auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" width="315" /></a></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-30610210050245708582015-05-19T07:44:00.003-07:002015-05-19T07:44:42.128-07:0011 Strange Remedies Used By Renaissance Doctors<div class="primary-image" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; float: none; font-family: pragmatica-web, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; font-stretch: inherit; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<img alt="" height="430" src="http://images.mentalfloss.com/sites/default/files/styles/article_640x430/public/the_anatomy_lesson.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto 20px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" width="640" /></div>
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IMAGE CREDIT: </div>
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THE ANATOMY LESSON OF DR. NICOLAES TULP BY REMBRANDT, VIA WIKIMEDIA COMMONS</div>
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The Renaissance may have been a time of great scientific and artistic innovation, but the era’s medical treatments still had a ways to go before they became safe and effective. Here are a few questionable cures a Renaissance doctor may have prescribed you. </div>
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1. TOBACCO USED IN JUST ABOUT EVERY WAY IMAGINABLE </h4>
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Prior to the arrival of Europeans in the New World, medical uses for smoke were limited to Greek and Eastern traditions involving incense for the treatment of cough and "female diseases."</div>
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Once tobacco crossed the pond, European healers found plenty of ways to use the leaf as a compress, mixture ingredient, or inhalant for treating such ailments as cancer, headaches, respiratory problems, stomach cramps, head cold, hypothermia, intestinal worms, and somnolence. For a period, tobacco was seen as a true miracle drug and was even worshipped in healing-based rituals.</div>
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Taking cues from a similar Native American tradition, Western healers also made a habit of performing tobacco-smoke enemas for respiratory conditions and in attempts to revive drowning victims. On the smokeless front, doctors preferred liquid tobacco enemas for treating hernias.</div>
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2. ENEMAS FOR ALL SEASONS </h4>
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Smoke was far from the only thing being introduced to Renaissance rectums in the name of good health. As an effective method of getting medicine in the body and targeting intestinal issues, the enema was central to the era’s medical arsenal and was considered appropriate treatment for everything from constipation to cancer. </div>
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3. VOMITING AWAY SNAKEBITES </h4>
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Emetics were often distributed to induce vomiting as part of illness-specific, or all-around purge processes in Renaissance life, too. An evolving but long-standing belief in the importance of the body’s four humors (blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm) combined with a growing awareness of toxicology, the body’s chemical processes. The Ancient Greek belief in the humors soon fused with the Ayurvedic <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=YKJ6gVYbrGwC&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #04bfc3; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">elemental system</a> to lead healers to encourage bodily cleanses for removing perceived excesses from the body, be they from snakebites and boozing, or supposed planetary-based mineral spikes. </div>
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4. CUPPING, BLOODLETTING, AND TOOTH REMOVAL BY BARBERS </h4>
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Right up until Europe’s Modern Age and arguably into it, Western medical practitioners could be physicians—many of whom assumed a theoretical, hands-off role—but also surgeons, religious figures, wise women, apothecaries, and barbers. Because they already had the tools required to perform simple surgeries (i.e. straight razors), a barber would often be the go-to option for a person’s local surgical needs. In 1540, British surgeons—skilled tradesmen who were distinct from trained physicians— joined with barbers to form the Company of Barber-Surgeons <a href="http://barberscompany.org/" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #04bfc3; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">livery group</a> under Henry VIII, which remained active until 1745. </div>
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Barbers would frequently perform cupping therapy, which creates localized suction on the body (thought to induce heightened circulation), bloodletting therapy (for draining excess blood in the case of imbalanced humors), and pulling teeth (if an herbal compress or a flaming twig failed to make the worm—thought to be burrowing in the tooth’s cavity—fall out). These barbers could also, of course, cut hair, give shaves, and perform enemas. </div>
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5. HERBAL REMEDIES RESEMBLING THE HUMAN BODY ... </h4>
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By the middle of the last millennium, Western and Eastern societies were sharing an unprecedented amount of knowledge and culture, and Europe’s Renaissance healers frequently drew on the old, overlapping Christian and Islamic belief that God had endowed the world with cures for human illnesses in the form of plants resembling the body’s respectively ailing parts. The daisy-like Euphrasia flower (or “eyebright”), for example, was used in various concoctions for treating the eyes through the 17th century. </div>
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Jakob Böhme's 1621 work <em style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Signature of All Things </em>helped name and spread the popular “doctrine of signatures” that outlined this theory. The English botanist William Cole, among the doctrine’s many supporters, wrote that “the mercy of God... maketh… Herbes for the use of men, and hath… given them particular Signatures, whereby a man may read… the use of them.” </div>
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6. ... BUT ALSO ON THE NATURAL ORDER OF THE COSMOS ... </h4>
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Born Philippus von Hohenheim in 1493, Paracelsus was a highly accomplished Swiss German physician, botanist, and alchemist who, among many other things, founded the field of toxicology and openly challenged many of the still-popular medical principles established by Aristotle and Galen more than 1,000 years earlier. A major proponent of astrology, Paracelsus outlined herbal, mineral, and spiritual treatments designed to maintain harmony between the microcosm (man) and macrocosm (nature), often prescribing different regimens based on the planets’ alignments. He also revised Greek definitions of the roles of the four bodily humors, suggesting that they were just one of the ways that you got sick, and most diseases weren’t caused by internal imbalances. </div>
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7. ... AND TREATING EVERYTHING FROM HANGOVERS AND CANCER TO ENVY AND LOUD ROOSTERS </h4>
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Rhiwallon Feddyg (a.k.a. Rhiwallon of Myddfai) was personal physician to the Welsh lord Rhys Gryg (a.k.a. Rhys the Hoarse/Stammerer). In addition to founding a centuries-long Welsh medical dynasty or "healing cult" with his three sons, he recorded centuries’ worth of know-how from the Physicians of Myddfai in the 1382 manuscript <em style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Red Book of </em><em style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Hergest</em>.</div>
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Compiling the collected Welsh medical wisdom, the tome was one of the earliest to offer compiled info on specific illnesses, their treatments, and various anatomical definitions, but also other practical applications of botany. A selection of its suggestions: </div>
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DRUNKENNESS. TO REMOVE. If you would remove a man's drunkenness, let him eat bruised saffron with spring water.</div>
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HOW TO BE MERRY. If you would be at all times merry, eat saffron in meat or drink, and you will never be sad: but beware of eating over much, lest you should die of excessive joy.</div>
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TO SILENCE A COCK. If you should wish that a cock should not crow, anoint his crest with oil, and he will be mute. </div>
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8. ALCOHOL FOR DIGESTION </h4>
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Booze was an integral part of Western medicine up through the early 20th century, and it was a popular treatment throughout the Middle Ages for its ability to “preserve the stomach, strengthen the natural heat, help digestion, defend the body from corruption, [and] concoct the food till it be turned into very blood,” according to 13th-century alchemist Roger Bacon. </div>
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9. MERCURY AS A SYPHILIS CURE </h4>
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Paracelsus and his peers were committed to the idea of harmony between man’s microcosm and nature’s macrocosm. They believed that this harmony relied on the interrelationships between the perceived seven planets (interestingly, he considered the Sun and Moon planets, but not Earth), the seven Earth metals, and the seven major human organs. In this system, each of the seven planets had a corresponding metal and organ (example triads being Sun/gold/heart and Jupiter/tin/liver) and allowed healers to prescribe metal-based treatments to target different areas of the body. </div>
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The Renaissance also saw the emergence and spread of syphilis throughout the Western world, the treatment for which was—as developed by Paracelsus—ingested or externally applied mercury, leading to a number of poisonings. Still, this would remain the dominant therapy until the early 20th century.</div>
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10. EARWAX FOR MIGRAINES </h4>
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Wasting and wanting not, Renaissance healers put not just any available plants, minerals, and religions to use in their remedies, but all sorts of scraps and waste products from human and animal bodies, too. Human fecal matter was used in variously ingested and externally applied medicines, earwax (mixed with mud) was used for treating migraines, and saliva was applied for skin irritation. Weakened patients drank human blood, which was also available for lepers to soak their limbs. </div>
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11. PIG URINE TO BEAT A FEVER </h4>
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Meanwhile, the droppings of dogs and crows were prized for treating colic and dysentery, respectively. Pig urine fought fevers, and the roasted flesh of “well nourished kittens” relieved jaundice.</div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-79194902313486378352015-03-30T09:47:00.001-07:002015-03-30T09:53:20.279-07:00Timeline of History of Medicine<b>Antiquity</b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>2600 BC – Imhotep the priest-physician who was later deified as the Egyptian god of medicine.[1]ancient Egyptian medicine</li>
<li>2500 BC - Iry Egyptian inscription speaks of Iry as [eye-doctor of the palace,] [palace physician of the belly,] [guardian of the royal bowels,] and [he who prepares the important medicine (name cannot be translated) and knows the inner juices of the body.][2]</li>
<li>1900 BC - 1600 BC Akkadian clay tablets on medicine survive primarily as copies from Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh.[3]</li>
<li>1800 BC - Code of Hammurabi sets out fees for surgeons and punishments for malpractice[2]</li>
<li>1800 BC - Kahun Gynecological Papyrus</li>
<li>1600 BC - Hearst papyrus Coprotherapy and magic[4]</li>
<li>1551 BC - Ebers Papyrus Coprotherapy and magic[5]</li>
<li>1500 BC – Saffron used as a medicine on the Aegean island of Thera in ancient Greece</li>
<li>1500 BC - Edwin Smith Papyrus an Egyptian medical text and the oldest known surgical treatise (no true surgery) no magic[2]</li>
<li>1300 BC - Brugsch Papyrus and London Medical Papyrus</li>
<li>1250 BC - Asklepios[2]</li>
<li>9th century- Hesiod reports an ontological conception of disease via the Pandora myth. Disease has a "life" of its own but is of divine origin.[4]</li>
<li>8th century - Homer tells that Polydamna supplied the Greek forces besieging Troy with healing drugs Homer also tells about battlefield surgery Idomeneus tells Nestor after Machaon had fallen: A surgeon who can cut out an arrow and heal the wound with his ointments is worth a regiment.[2]</li>
<li>700 BC - Cnidos medical school also one at Cos</li>
<li>500 BC - Darius I orders the restoration of the House of Life (First record of a (much older) medical school)[2]:47</li>
<li>500 BC – Bian Que becomes the earliest physician known to use acupuncture and pulse diagnosis</li>
<li>500 BC – the Sushruta Samhita is published, laying the framework for Ayurvedic medicine</li>
<li>c 490 - c 430 Empedocles four elements[5]</li>
<li>510-430 BC - Alcmaeon of Croton scientific anatomic dissections. He studied the optic nerves and the brain, arguing that the brain was the seat of the senses and intelligence. He distinguished veins from the arteries and had at least vague understanding of the circulation of the blood.[2] Variously described by modern scholars as Father of Anatomy; Father of Physiology; Father of Embryology; Father of Psychology; Creator of Psychiatry; Founder of Gynecology; and as the Father of Medicine itself.[6] There is little evidence to support the claims but he is, nonetheless, important.[5][7]</li>
<li>fl. 425 BC Diogenes of Apollonia[5]</li>
<li>c.484 – 425 BC Herodotus tells us Egyptian doctors were specialists: Medicine is practiced among them on a plan of separation; each physician treats a single disorder, and no more. Thus the country swarms with medical practitioners, some undertaking to cure diseases of the eye, others of the head, others again of the teeth, others of the intestines,and some those which are not local.[2]</li>
<li>496-405 BC - Sophocles “It is not a learned physician who sings incantations over pains which should be cured by cutting.”[8]</li>
<li>420 BC – Hippocrates of Cos maintains that diseases have natural causes and puts forth the Hippocratic Oath. Origin of rational medicine.</li>
<li>Medicine after Hippocrates</li>
<li>c. 400 BC - 1 BC – The Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine) is published, laying the framework for traditional Chinese medicine</li>
<li>4th century BC - Philistion of Locri[5] Praxagoras distinguishes veins and arteries and determines only arteries pulse[9]</li>
<li>375-295 BC Diocles of Carystus[1][5][10]</li>
<li>354 BC - Critobulus, extracts an arrow from Phillip II's eye, treating the loss of the eyeball without causing facial disfigurement</li>
<li>3rd century BC - Philinus of Cos founder of the Empiricist school. Herophilos and Erasistratus practice androtomy. (Dissecting live and dead human beings)</li>
<li>280 BC – Herophilus Dissection[7] studies the nervous system and distinguishes between sensory nerves and motor nerves and the brain. also the anatomy of the eye and medical terminology such as (in Latin translation "net like" becomes retiform/retina.[5]</li>
<li>270 – Huangfu Mi writes the Zhenjiu Jiayijing (The ABC Compendium of Acupuncture), the first textbook focusing solely on acupuncture</li>
<li>250 BC – Erasistratus studies the brain and distinguishes between the cerebrum and cerebellum physiology of the brain, heart and eyes, and in the vascular, nervous, respiratory and reproductive systems.</li>
<li>219 – Zhang Zhongjing publishes Shang Han Lun (On Cold Disease Damage).</li>
<li>200 BC – the Charaka Samhita uses a rational approach to the causes and cure of disease and uses objective methods of clinical examination</li>
<li>124- 44 BC - Asclepiades of Bithynia[7]</li>
<li>116–27 B.C - Marcus Terentius Varro Germ theory of disease No one paid any attention to it.[11]</li>
<li>1st century AD - Rufus of Ephesus; Marcellinus a physician of the first century AD;[5] Numisianus[6]</li>
<li>23 AD – 79 AD Pliny the Elder writes Natural History</li>
<li>ca 25 BC - ca 50 AD Aulus Cornelius Celsus Medical encyclopedia[12]</li>
<li>50-70 AD – Pedanius Dioscorides writes De Materia Medica – a precursor of modern pharmacopoeias that was in use for almost 1600 years</li>
<li>2nd century AD Aretaeus of Cappadocia[7]</li>
<li>98-138 AD - Soranus of Ephesus[13]</li>
<li>129 - 216 AD – Galen Clinical medicine based on observation and experience.[10] The resulting tightly integrated and comprehensive system, offering a complete medical philosophy dominated medicine throughout the Middle Ages and until the beginning of the modern era.[14]</li>
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<br />
<b>After Galen 200 AD</b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>d.260 - Gargilius Martialis, short Latin handbook on Medicines from Vegetables and Fruits[10]</li>
<li>4th century Magnus of Nisibis, Alexandrian doctor and professor book on urine[15]</li>
<li>325-400 - Oribasius 70 volume encyclopedia[3]</li>
<li>362 - Julian orders xenones built, imitating Christian charity (proto hospitals)[15]</li>
<li>369 Basil of Caesarea founded at Caesarea in Cappadocia an institution (hospital) called Basilias, with several buildings for patients, nurses, physicians, workshops, and schools[13]</li>
<li>375 - Ephrem the Syrian opened a hospital at Edessa[13] They spread out ans specialized nosocomia for the sick, brephotrophia for foundlings, orphanotrophia for orphans, ptochia for the poor, xenodochia for poor or infirm pilgrims, and gerontochia for the old.[13]</li>
<li>400 - The first hospital in Latin Christendom was founded by Fabiola at Rome[13]</li>
<li>420 - Caelius Aurelianus a doctor from Sicca Veneria (El-Kef, Tunisia) handbook On Acute and Chronic Diseases in Latin.[10]</li>
<li>447 - Cassius Felix of Cirta (Constantine, Ksantina, Algeria), medical handbook drew on Greek sources, Methodist and Galenist in Latin[10]</li>
<li>480 -547 Benedict of Nursia founder of "monastic medicine"[16]</li>
<li>fl. 511–534 Anthimus Greek: Ἄνθιμος[17]</li>
<li>536 Sergius of Reshaina (died 536) A Christian theologian-physician who translated thirty-two of Galen’s works into Syriac and wrote medical treatises of his own[18]</li>
<li>525-605 - Alexander of Tralles[15] Alexander Trallianus</li>
<li>500-550 - Aetius of Amida Encyclopedia 4 books each divided into 4 sections[3][3][15]</li>
<li>second half of 6th century building of xenodocheions/bimārestāns by the Nestorians under the Sasanians, would evolve into the complex secular “Islamic hospital,” which combined lay practice and Galenic teaching[18]</li>
<li>550-630 Stephanus of Athens[10][19]</li>
<li>560 – 636 Isidore of Seville</li>
<li>c. 620 Aaron of Alexandria Syriac . He wrote 30 books on medicine, the "Pandects". He was the first author in antiquity who mentioned the diseases of smallpox and measles[20] translated by Māsarjawaih a Syrian Jew and Physician, into Arabic about A. D. 683</li>
<li>c. 630 - Paul of Aegina Encyclopedia in 7 books very detailed surgery used by Albucasis[10][15][21]</li>
<li>790-869 Leo Itrosophist also Mathematician or Philosopher wrote "Epitome of Medicine"</li>
<li>c. 800–873 – Al-Kindi (Alkindus) De Gradibus</li>
<li>820 - Benedictine hospital founded, School of Salerno would grow around it[3]</li>
<li>857d - Mesue the elder (Yūḥannā ibn Māsawayh) Syriac Christian[14]</li>
<li>c. 830–870 – Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Johannitius) Syriac-speaking Christian also knew Greek and Arabic. Translator and author of several medical tracts.[14]</li>
<li>c. 838–870 – Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, writes an encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic.[22]</li>
<li>c.910d - Ishaq ibn Hunayn</li>
<li>9th century Yahya ibn Sarafyun a Syriac physician Johannes Serapion,[14] Serapion the Elder</li>
<li>c. 865–925 – Rhazes pediatrics,[3][23] and makes the first clear distinction between smallpox and measles in his al-Hawi.</li>
<li>d.955 - Isaac Judaeus Isḥāq ibn Sulaymān al-Isrāʾīlī Egyptian born Jewish physician[14]</li>
<li>913-982 - Shabbethai Donnolo alleged founding father of School of Salerno wrote in Hebrew[24]</li>
<li>d. 982-994 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi Haly Abbas[3]</li>
<li>1000 – Albucasis (936-1018) surgery Kitab al-Tasrif, surgical instruments.[14]</li>
<li>d.1075 - Ibn Butlan Christian physician of Baghdad Tacuinum sanitatis the Arabic original and most of the Latin copies, are in tabular format[14]</li>
<li>1018-1087 Michael Psellos or Psellus a Byzantine monk, writer, philosopher, politician and historian. several books on medicine[15]</li>
<li>c. 1030 – Avicenna The Canon of Medicine The Canon remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European universities until the 18th century.</li>
<li>c.1071-1078 Simeon Seth or Symeon Seth an 11th-century Jewish Byzantine translated Arabic works into Greek[15]</li>
<li>1084 - First documented hospital in England Canterbury[13]</li>
<li>1087d - Constantine the African[14]</li>
<li>1083-1153 Anna Komnene, Latinized as Comnena</li>
<li>1095 - Congregation of the Antonines, was founded to treat victims of "St. Anthony's fire" a skin disease.[13]</li>
<li>late 11th early 12th century Trotula[25]</li>
<li>1123 - St Bartholomew's Hospital founded by the court jester Rahere Augustine nuns originally cared for the patients. Mental patients were accepted along with others[26]</li>
<li>1127 - Stephen of Antioch translated the work of Haly Abbas</li>
<li>1100–1161 – Avenzoar Teacher of Averroes[27]</li>
<li>1170 Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia also known as The Surgery of Roger</li>
<li>1126-1198 - Averroes[3]</li>
<li>c.1161d - Matthaeus Platearius</li>
<li><br /></li>
</ul>
<b>1200 - 1500</b><br /><ul>
<li>1204 - Innocent III organized the hospital of Santo Spirito at Rome inspiring others all over Europe</li>
<li>c.1210-1277 - William of Saliceto also known as Guilielmus de Saliceto</li>
<li>1210 - 1295 Taddeo Alderotti Scholastic medicine[28]</li>
<li>1240 Bartholomeus Anglicus[4]</li>
<li>1242 – Ibn an-Nafis suggests that the right and left ventricles of the heart are separate and discovers the pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation[14]</li>
<li>c. 1248 – Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany and pharmacy,[14] studied animal anatomy and medicine veterinary medicine.</li>
<li>1249 – Roger Bacon writes about convex lens spectacles for treating long-sightedness</li>
<li>1257 - 1316 Pietro d'Abano also known as Petrus De Apono or Aponensis[28]</li>
<li>1260 - Louis IX established, Les Quinze-vingt; originally a retreat for the blind, it became a hospital for eye diseases, and is now one of the most important medical centers in Paris[13]</li>
<li>c. 1260 – 1316 Henri de Mondeville</li>
<li>1284 - Mansur hospital of Cairo[3]</li>
<li>c. 1275 – c. 1328 Joannes Zacharias Actuarius a Byzantine physician wrote the last great compendium of Byzantine medicine[15]</li>
<li>1275-1326 Mondino de Luzzi "Mundinus" carried out the first systematic human dissections since Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos 1500 years earlier.[29][30]</li>
<li>1288 The hospital of Santa Maria Nuova founded in Florence, it was strictly medical.[4]</li>
<li>1300 – concave lens spectacles to treat myopia developed in Italy.[31]</li>
<li>1310 Pietro d'Abano's Conciliator (c.1310)[4]</li>
<li>d1348 Gentile da Foligno[28]</li>
<li>1292-1350 - Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya[3]</li>
<li>1306-1390 John of Arderne[29][32][33]</li>
<li>d.1368 Guy de Chauliac[29][34]</li>
<li>f.1460 Heinrich von Pfolspeundt[29][30][35][36][37]</li>
<li>1443-1502 Antonio Benivieni[29][38] Pathological anatomy[39]</li>
<li>1493-1541 Paracelsus[29] On the relationship between medicine and surgery[40] surgery book[41]</li>
</ul>
<b>1500–1800</b><br /><ul>
<li>early 16th century:</li>
<li>Paracelsus, an alchemist by trade, rejects occultism and pioneers the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. Burns the books of Avicenna, Galen and Hippocrates.[42]</li>
<li>Hieronymus Fabricius[29] His "Surgery" is mostly that of Celsus, Paul of Aegina, and Abulcasis citeing them by name.[43]</li>
<li>Caspar Stromayr or Stromayer Sixteenth Century[29][44]</li>
<li>1500?-1561 Pierre Franco[29][37][45][46]</li>
<li>Ambroise Pare 1510-1590 pioneered the treatment of gunshot wounds.[29][47][48]</li>
<li>Bartholomeo Maggi at Bologna, Felix Wurtz of Zurich, Léonard Botal in Paris, and the Englishman Thomas Gale (surgeon), (the diversity of their geographical origins attests to the widespread interest of surgeons in the problem), all published works urging similar treatment to Paré’s. But it was Paré’s writings which were the most influential.[49]</li>
<li>1518 - College of Physicians founded now known as Royal College of Physicians of London is a British professional body of doctors of general medicine and its subspecialties. It received the royal charter in 1518[50]</li>
<li>1510-1590 Ambroise Paré surgeon[50]</li>
<li>1540-1604 William Clowes (surgeon)[29][36][51] Surgical chest for military surgeons[51][52]</li>
<li>1543 – Andreas Vesalius publishes De Fabrica Corporis Humani which corrects Greek medical errors and revolutionizes European medicine[53][54]</li>
<li>1546 – Girolamo Fracastoro proposes that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seedlike entities</li>
<li>1550-1612 Peter Lowe [29][52][55]</li>
<li>1553 – Miguel Serveto describes the circulation of blood through the lungs. He is accused of heresy and burned at the stake</li>
<li>1556 – Amato Lusitano describes venous valves in the Ázigos vein</li>
<li>1559 – Realdo Colombo describes the circulation of blood through the lungs in detail</li>
<li>1563 – Garcia de Orta founds tropical medicine with his treatise on Indian diseases and treatments</li>
<li>1570 1643 John Woodall Ships Surgeon used lemon juice to treat scurvy[52] wrote "The Surgions Mate"[56]</li>
<li>1596 – Li Shizhen publishes Běncǎo Gāngmù or Compendium of Materia Medica</li>
<li>1603 – Girolamo Fabrici studies leg veins and notices that they have valves which allow blood to flow only toward the heart</li>
<li>1621-1676 Richard Wiseman[29][36][52][57][58]</li>
<li>1628 – William Harvey explains the circulatory system in Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus</li>
<li>1683-1758 Lorenz Heister[29][52][59]</li>
<li>1688-1752 William Cheselden[29][52][60][61][62]</li>
<li>1701 – Giacomo Pylarini gives the first smallpox inoculations in Europe. They were widely practised in the east before then.</li>
<li>1714-1789 Percivall Pott[29][63][64][65][66]</li>
<li>1720 - Lady Mary Wortley Montagu</li>
<li>1728-1793 John Hunter (surgeon)[29][47][67][68]</li>
<li>1736 – Claudius Aymand performs the first successful appendectomy</li>
<li>1744-1795 Pierre-Joseph Desault[29][52][69] First surgical periodical[70]</li>
<li>1747 – James Lind discovers that citrus fruits prevent scurvy</li>
<li>1749-1806 Benjamin Bell Leading surgeon of his time and father of a surgical dynasty[29] system of surgery[71]</li>
<li>1752-1832 Antonio Scarpa[29][52][72][73]</li>
<li>1763-1820John Bell (surgeon)[29][36][74][75]</li>
<li>1766-1842 Dominique Jean Larrey Surgeon to Napoleon[29][36][52][76][77][78][79]</li>
<li>1768-1843 Astley Cooper sergeon[29][52][72] lectures[80] principles and practice[81]</li>
<li>1774-1842 Charles Bell, surgeon[29][36][74][82]</li>
<li>1774 – Joseph Priestley discovers nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, ammonia, hydrogen chloride and oxygen</li>
<li>1777-1835 - Baron Guillaume Dupuytren[29] Head surgeon at Hôtel-Dieu de Paris,[83] The age Dupuytren[84][85]</li>
<li>1785 – William Withering publishes "An Account of the Foxglove" the first systematic description of digitalis in treating dropsy</li>
<li>1790 – Samuel Hahnemann rages against the prevalent practice of bloodletting as a universal cure and founds homeopathy</li>
<li>1796 – Edward Jenner develops a smallpox vaccination method</li>
<li>1799 – Humphry Davy discovers the anesthetic properties of nitrous oxide</li>
</ul>
<b>1800–1899</b><br /><ul>
<li>1800 – Humphry Davy announces the anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide</li>
<li>1813-1883 James Marion Sims Vesico-vaganial surgery[29][86][87] Father of surgical genocology[36] Biography[88]</li>
<li>1816 – Rene Laennec invents the stethoscope</li>
<li>1827-1912 Joseph Lister Anti-septic surgery[29][52][89] Father of modern surgery[90]</li>
<li>1818 – James Blundell performs the first successful human blood transfusion</li>
<li>1842 – Crawford Long performs the first surgical operation using anesthesia with ether</li>
<li>1846 – First painless surgery with general anesthetic</li>
<li>1847 – Ignaz Semmelweis discovers how to prevent puerperal fever</li>
<li>1849 – Elizabeth Blackwell is the first woman to gain a medical degree</li>
<li>1858 - Rudolf Carl Virchow 13 October 1821 – 5 September 1902 his theories of cellular pathology spelled the end of Humoral medicine</li>
<li>1867 – Lister publishes Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery, based partly on Pasteur's work</li>
<li>1870 – Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch establish the germ theory of disease</li>
<li>1878 – Ellis Reynolds Shipp graduates from Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania and begins practice in Utah</li>
<li>1879 – First vaccine for cholera</li>
<li>1881 – Louis Pasteur develops an anthrax vaccine</li>
<li>1882 – Louis Pasteur develops a rabies vaccine</li>
<li>1890 – Emil von Behring discovers antitoxins and uses them to develop tetanus and diphtheria vaccines</li>
<li>1895 – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers medical use of X-rays in medical imaging</li>
</ul>
<b>1900–1999</b><br /><ul>
<li>1901 – Karl Landsteiner discovers the existence of different human blood types</li>
<li>1901 – Alois Alzheimer identifies the first case of what becomes known as Alzheimer's disease</li>
<li>1903 - Willem Einthoven discovers electrocardiography (ECG/EKG)</li>
<li>1906 – Frederick Hopkins suggests the existence of vitamins and suggests that a lack of vitamins causes scurvy and rickets</li>
<li>1907 – Paul Ehrlich develops a chemotherapeutic cure for sleeping sickness</li>
<li>1908 – Victor Horsley and R. Clarke invents the stereotactic method</li>
<li>1909 – First Intrauterine device described by Richard Richter.[91]</li>
<li>1910 - Hans Christian Jacobaeus performs the first laparoscopy on humans</li>
<li>1917 – Julius Wagner-Jauregg discovers the malarial fever shock therapy for general paresis of the insane</li>
<li>1921 – Edward Mellanby discovers vitamin D and shows that its absence causes rickets</li>
<li>1921 – Frederick Banting and Charles Best discover insulin – important for the treatment of diabetes</li>
<li>1921 – Fidel Pagés pioneers epidural anesthesia</li>
<li>1923 – First vaccine for Diphtheria</li>
<li>1926 – First vaccine for Pertussis</li>
<li>1927 – First vaccine for Tuberculosis</li>
<li>1927 – First vaccine for Tetanus</li>
<li>1928 – Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin</li>
<li>1929 – Hans Berger discovers human electroencephalography</li>
<li>1932 – Gerhard Domagk develops a chemotherapeutic cure for streptococcus</li>
<li>1933 – Manfred Sakel discovers insulin shock therapy</li>
<li>1935 – Ladislas J. Meduna discovers metrazol shock therapy</li>
<li>1935 – First vaccine for Yellow Fever</li>
<li>1936 – Egas Moniz discovers prefrontal lobotomy for treating mental diseases; Enrique Finochietto develops the now ubiquitous self-retaining thoracic retractor</li>
<li>1938 – Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini discover electroconvulsive therapy</li>
<li>1943 – Willem J Kolff build the first dialysis machine</li>
<li>1944 - Disposable Catheter - David S. Sheridan</li>
<li>1946 - Chemotherapy - Alfred G. Gilman and Louis S.Goodman</li>
<li>1947 - Defibrillator - Claude Beck</li>
<li>1948 - Acetaminophen - Julius Axelrod, Bernard Brodie</li>
<li>1949 – First implant of intraocular lens, by Sir Harold Ridley</li>
<li>1949 - mechanical assistor for anesthesia - John Emerson</li>
<li>1952 – Jonas Salk develops the first polio vaccine (available in 1955)</li>
<li>1952 - Cloning - Robert Briggs &amp; Thomas King</li>
<li>1953 - Heart-Lung Machine - Dr John Heysham Gibbon</li>
<li>1953 - Medical Ultrasonography - Inge Edler</li>
<li>1954 - Joseph Murray performs the first human kidney transplant (on identical twins)</li>
<li>1954 - Ventouse - Tage Malmstrom</li>
<li>1955 - Tetracycline - Lloyd Conover</li>
<li>1956 - Metered Dose Inhaler - 3M</li>
<li>1957 – William Grey Walter invents the brain EEG topography (toposcope)</li>
<li>1958 - Pacemaker - Rune Elmqvist</li>
<li>1959 - In Vitro Fertilization - Min Chueh Chang</li>
<li>1960 – Invention of Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)</li>
<li>1960 – First combined oral contraceptive approved by the FDA[91]</li>
<li>1962 - Hip Replacement - John Charnley</li>
<li>1962 - Beta Blocker James W. Black</li>
<li>1962 – First Oral Polio Vaccine (Sabin)</li>
<li>1963 - Artificial Heart - Paul Winchell</li>
<li>1963 - Thomas Starzl performs the first human liver transplant</li>
<li>1963 - James Hardy performs the first human lung transplant</li>
<li>1963 - Valium (diazepam) - Leo H Sternbach</li>
<li>1964 – First vaccine for Measles</li>
<li>1965 – Frank Pantridge installs the first portable defibrillator</li>
<li>1965 – First commercial ultrasound</li>
<li>1966 - C. Walton Lillehei performs the first human pancreas transplant</li>
<li>1966 - Rubella Vaccine - Harry Martin Meyer and Paul D. Parkman[92]</li>
<li>1967 – First vaccine for Mumps</li>
<li>1967 – Christiaan Barnard performs the first human heart transplant</li>
<li>1968 - Powered Prothesis - Samuel Alderson</li>
<li>1968 - Controlled Drug Delivery - Alejandro Zaffaron</li>
<li>1969 - Internet - Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA)</li>
<li>1969 - Balloon Catheter - Thomas Fogarty</li>
<li>1969 - Cochlear Implant - William House</li>
<li>1970 - Cyclosporine, the first effective immunosuppressive drug is introduced in organ transplant practice</li>
<li>1971 - Genetically Modified Organisms - Ananda Chakrabart</li>
<li>1971 - Magnetic Resonance Imaging - Raymond Vahan Damadian</li>
<li>1971 - Computed Tomography (CT or CAT Scan) - Godfrey Hounsfield</li>
<li>1971 - Transdermal Patches - Alejandro Zaffaroni</li>
<li>1971 – Sir Godfrey Hounsfield invents the first commercial CT scanner</li>
<li>1972 - Insulin Pump - Dean Kamen</li>
<li>1973 - Laser Eye Surgery (LASIK) - Mani Lal Bhaumik</li>
<li>1974 - Liposuction - Giorgio Fischer</li>
<li>1976 – First commercial PET scanner</li>
<li>1978 – Last fatal case of smallpox[93]</li>
<li>1979 Antiviral Drugs - George Hitchings &amp; Gertrude Elion</li>
<li>1980 – Raymond Damadian builds first commercial MRI scanner</li>
<li>1980 - Lithotripter - Dornier Research Group</li>
<li>1980 – First vaccine for Hepatitis B - Dr Baruch Samuel Blumberg</li>
<li>1981 - Artificial Skin - John F. Burke &amp; Ioannis V Yannas</li>
<li>1981 - Bruce Reitz performs the first human heart-lung combined transplant</li>
<li>1982 - Humulin insulin - Eli Lilly</li>
<li>Interferon Cloning - Sidney Pestka</li>
<li>1985 - Automated DNA Sequencer - Leroy Hood &amp; Lloyd Smith</li>
<li>1985 - Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) - Kaery Mullis</li>
<li>1985 - Surgical Robot - Dr Yik San Kwoh</li>
<li>1985 - DNA Fingerprinting - Alec Jeffreys</li>
<li>1985 - Capsule Endoscopy - Tarun Mullick</li>
<li>1986 - Fluoxetine HCl - Eli Lilly and Co</li>
<li>1987 – Ben Carson, leading a 70-member medical team in Germany, was the first to separate occipital craniopagus twins.</li>
<li>1987 - commercially available Statins - Merck &amp; Co.</li>
<li>1987 - Tissue Engineering - Joseph Vacanti &amp; Robert Langer</li>
<li>1988 - Intravascular Stent - Julio Palmaz</li>
<li>1988 - Laser Cataract Surgery - Dr Patricia Bath</li>
<li>1989 - Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) - Alan Handyside</li>
<li>1989 - DNA Microarray - Stephen Fodor</li>
<li>1990 - Gamow Bag ® - Dr Igor Gamow</li>
<li>1992 – First vaccine for Hepatitis A available[94]</li>
<li>1992 - Electroactive polymers (Artificial Muscle) - SRI International</li>
<li>1992 - Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) - Andre van Steirteghem</li>
<li>1996 - Dolly the Sheep cloned</li>
<li>1998 - Stem Cell Therapy - James Thomson</li>
</ul>
<br />
<b>2000 – present</b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>26 June 2000 - Human Genome draft completed</li>
<li>2001 Telesurgery - Jacques Marescaux</li>
<li>2003 – Carlo Urbani, of Doctors without Borders alerted the World Health Organization to the threat of the SARS virus, triggering the most effective response to an epidemic in history. Urbani succumbs to the disease himself in less than a month.</li>
<li>2005 – Jean-Michel Dubernard performs the first partial face transplant</li>
<li>2006 – First HPV vaccine approved</li>
<li>2006 – Second rotavirus vaccine approved (first was withdrawn)</li>
<li>2007 - Visual prosthetic (bionic eye) Argus II</li>
<li>2008 – Laurent Lantieri performs the first full face transplant</li>
<li>2013 - First kidney grown in vitro in the U.S.</li>
<li>2013 - First human liver grown from stem cells in Japan</li>
<li>2014 - Great Ebola Outbreak - First cases and deaths in Europe and America</li>
</ul>
Carlos Vázquezhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09266699098392968330noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-60669783722674867852015-03-30T09:41:00.003-07:002015-03-30T09:41:54.007-07:00Anatomy of the heart <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Enrique_Simonet_-_La_autopsia_-_1890.jpg/2560px-Enrique_Simonet_-_La_autopsia_-_1890.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="382" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Enrique_Simonet_-_La_autopsia_-_1890.jpg/2560px-Enrique_Simonet_-_La_autopsia_-_1890.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i style="background-color: #f9f9f9; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.370400428772px; line-height: 17.3185615539551px; text-align: left; widows: 1;">Anatomy of the heart</i><span style="background-color: #f9f9f9; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.370400428772px; line-height: 17.3185615539551px; text-align: left; widows: 1;"> (1890) by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrique_Simonet" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.370400428772px; line-height: 17.3185615539551px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; widows: 1;" title="Enrique Simonet">Enrique Simonet</a><span style="background-color: #f9f9f9; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.370400428772px; line-height: 17.3185615539551px; text-align: left; widows: 1;">.</span></td></tr>
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<br />Carlos Vázquezhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09266699098392968330noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-84542380498504158322013-09-06T10:47:00.000-07:002013-09-06T10:47:02.896-07:00Human anatomy and Medicine<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />Carlos Vázquezhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09266699098392968330noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-89649346809995271872012-06-23T09:58:00.000-07:002012-06-23T10:02:14.192-07:00Images from the National Museum of Health and Medicine<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/jgmundie/sets/72157600627429617/" target="_blank"><img border="0" height="400" src="http://farm2.staticflickr.com/1395/708923032_969d424e05_m.jpg" width="262" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/jgmundie/sets/72157600627429617/" target="_blank">These photographs</a> were taken at <a href="http://www.medicalmuseum.mil/">The National Museum of Health and Medicine</a> on the grounds of Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington DC. Since that time, Walter Reed has closed and the museum has moved to a new, but smaller, site in Silver Springs MD. <span style="background-color: #fefefe; color: black; display: inline ! important; float: none; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 18px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br /></span>Carlos Vázquezhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09266699098392968330noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-52823704588677794482011-01-12T10:08:00.000-08:002011-01-12T10:08:15.167-08:00Hanaoka Seishu's Surgical Casebook<div style="text-align: justify;">“A Surgical Casebook” is a manuscript of hand-painted pictures commissioned by Hanaoka Seishu, a pioneering Japanese surgeon who was the first to use general anesthesia to remove tumors from cancer patients. The colorful, often charming, pictures in this casebook capture the likenesses of the men and women who came to Hanaoka for treatment; and, importantly, they depict, quite graphically, the medical and surgical problem to be treated. Clearly, Hanaoka engaged an artist of considerable talent to make a visual document of the patient’s condition before surgery. This suggests a local artist or an artistically-talented medical associate, because Hanaoka would have encountered the patients depicted in this book over a period of many years. The labels attached to the pictures provide information about a patient’s place of residence, occasionally his or her name and livelihood, and sometimes a diagnosis.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://bibliovirtual.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/imagen-5.png?w=400&h=320#038;h=320" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="224" src="http://bibliovirtual.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/imagen-5.png?w=400&h=320#038;h=320" width="320" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Hanaoka Seishu’s fame is based on his invention of an oral anesthesia that could render a patient unconscious for long enough to allow him to remove deep tumors. Hanaoka was born to a physician’s family in Kii Province (today’s Wakayama Prefecture), a remote, mountainous region of south central Japan, in 1760. At age twenty-two he went to Kyoto, where he studied both traditional Chinese-style medicine and Western-style surgical techniques; at age twenty-five he took over the family business and began to practice an eclectic style of medicine that combined these two traditions. He was greatly concerned with his inability to treat cancer patients, and over a period of twenty years he developed an herbal concoction he called ‘mafutsusan.’ It was made up of several highly toxic plants, including Korean asagao, Japanese aconite, Chinese angelica, and Arisaema japonicum, among others. It did not include opium derivatives which were only beginning to be identified by European doctors. The herbs were ground into a paste, boiled with water, and administered to the patient by mouth well before the surgery. The narcotic effects of this anesthetic could last as long as 24 hours, allowing him to surgically remove many different kinds of tumors which previously had been inoperable (<a href="http://archive.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/flash/hanaoka/hanaoka.html">Access the boo</a>k). </div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-48247889884286216172008-12-13T15:21:00.000-08:002008-12-13T15:30:05.776-08:00Epilepticus sic curabitur<div align="justify"><a href="http://www.epilepsiemuseum.de/raum5/sicepile.jpg"><img style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN: 0px 0px 10px 10px; WIDTH: 199px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 300px" alt="" src="http://www.epilepsiemuseum.de/raum5/sicepile.jpg" border="0" /></a>The surgical treatment of epilepsy is not a recent innovation. As early as ancient Greek and Roman times, and in the Middle Ages, trepanation (the opening of the skull) was occasionally carried out on people with epilepsy. There were many different reasons for doing this, however. There was seldom a rational, medical reason for the operation, for instance to raise a piece of the skull cap which had entered the inner part of the skull as a result of an injury, perhaps in war, and which was thought to cause epileptic seizures in the patient. In such a case, the surgeon tried to raise the piece of bone and thus remove the cause of the epilepsy. Mostly, however, there were mystical, superstitious reasons for the trepanation operations which were performed. It was thought that opening the skull cap would cause the demons of the sickness, poisonous gases or disease-causing juices to escape. The practice of cauterisation was based on the same beliefs. In this picture, the person with epilepsy ('epilepticus') is undergoing both procedures - trepanation and cauterisation - at the same time. </div><div align="right"><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">Epilepticus sic curabitur ('The way to cure an epileptic') Sloane Manuscript, collection of medical manuscripts, end of the 12th century - British Museum, London</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-19840475299073290582008-11-15T12:29:00.000-08:002008-11-15T12:32:33.100-08:00Pericardial pathology 900 years ago: A study and translations from an Arabic medical textbook<object height="395" width="480"><param name="movie" value="http://www.scivee.tv/flash/embedPlayer.swf"><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"><param name="flashvars" value="id=2410&type=2"><embed src="http://www.scivee.tv/flash/embedPlayer.swf" width="480" height="395" flashvars="id=2410&type=2"></embed></object><br /><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=17334453">Text</a>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-25497588544386921752008-09-29T05:48:00.000-07:002012-11-19T07:18:05.811-08:00Phrenology<div align="justify">
<img alt="" border="0" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f5/Phrenology-journal.jpg/250px-Phrenology-journal.jpg" style="cursor: hand; float: right; margin: 0px 0px 10px 10px; width: 200px;" />Phrenology (from Greek: φρήν, phrēn, "mind"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is a defunct field of study, once considered a science, by which the personality traits of a person were determined by "reading" bumps and fissures in the skull. Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall around 1800, the discipline was very popular in the 19th century. In 1843, François Magendie referred to phrenology as "a pseudo-science of the present day."[1] Phrenological thinking was, however, influential in 19th-century psychiatry and modern neuroscience.[2]<br />
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Phrenology is based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific functions (see in particular, Brodmann's areas) or modules (see modularity of mind).[3] Phrenologists believed that the mind has a set of different mental faculties, with each particular faculty represented in a different area of the brain. These areas were said to be proportional to a person's propensities, and the importance of the given mental faculty. It was believed that the cranial bone conformed in order to accommodate the different sizes of these particular areas of the brain in different individuals, so that a person's capacity for a given personality trait could be determined simply by measuring the area of the skull that overlies the corresponding area of the brain.<br />
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<a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/1895-Dictionary-Phrenolog.png/250px-1895-Dictionary-Phrenolog.png"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/1895-Dictionary-Phrenolog.png/250px-1895-Dictionary-Phrenolog.png" style="cursor: hand; float: right; margin: 0px 0px 10px 10px; width: 200px;" /></a>In the history of personality theory, phrenology is considered to be an advance over the old medical theory of the four humours. However, it has no predictive power and is therefore dismissed as quackery by modern scientific discourse.<br />
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A 19th-century phrenology chart. The inscription on the neck reads, "Know yourself."Phrenology, which focuses on personality and character, should be distinguished from craniometry, which is the study of skull size, weight and shape, and physiognomy, the study of facial features. However, these disciplines have claimed the ability to predict personality traits or intelligence (in fields such as anthropology/ethnology), and were sometimes posed to scientifically justify racism<br />
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The attempt to locate faculties of personality within the head can be compared to the attempt of philosopher Aristotle of ancient Greece to localize anger in the liver. However, the first attempts to scientifically measure skull shape and its alleged relation to character were performed by the German physician Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828), who is considered the founding father of phrenology. Gall was one of the first to consider the brain to be the source of all mental activity.<br />
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In 1809 Gall began writing his greatest[4] work "The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particular, with Observations upon the possibility of ascertaining the several Intellectual and Moral Dispositions of Man and Animal, by the configuration of their Heads. It was not published until 1819. In the introduction to this main work, Gall makes the following statement in regard to his doctrinal principles, which comprise the intellectual foundation of phrenology:<br />
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That moral and intellectual faculties are innate<br />
That their exercise or manifestation depends on organization<br />
That the brain is the organ of all the propensities, sentiments and faculties<br />
That the brain is composed of as many particular organs as there are propensities, sentiments and faculties which differ essentially from each other.<br />
That the form of the head or cranium represents the form of the brain, and thus reflects the relative development of the brain organs.<br />
Through careful observation and extensive experimentation, Gall believed he had linked aspects of character, called faculties, to precise organs in the brain. Gall's most important collaborator was Johann Spurzheim (1776-1832), who successfully disseminated phrenology in the United Kingdom and the United States. He popularized the term phrenology.<br />
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Other significant authors include the Scottish brothers George Combe (1788-1858) and Andrew Combe (1797-1847), who founded the Phrenological Society of Edinburgh. George Combe was the author of some of the most popular works on phrenology and mental hygiene, e.g., The Constitution of Man and Elements of Phrenology.<br />
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The American brothers Lorenzo Niles Fowler (1811-1896) and Orson Squire Fowler (1809-1887) were leading phrenologists of their time. Orson, together with associates Samuel Wells and Nelson Sizer, ran the phrenological firm and publishing house Fowlers & Wells in New York City. Lorenzo spent much of his life in England where he set up the famous phrenological publishing house, L.N Fowler & Co., where he gained considerable fame with his phrenology head (a china head showing the phrenological faculties), which has become a symbol of the discipline.<br />
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<a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Phrenology1.jpg/250px-Phrenology1.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Phrenology1.jpg/250px-Phrenology1.jpg" style="cursor: hand; float: right; margin: 0px 0px 10px 10px; width: 200px;" /></a>1848 edition of American Phrenological Journal published by Fowlers & Wells, New York City.In the Victorian age, phrenology was often taken quite seriously. Many prominent public figures such as the Reverend Henry Ward Beecher (a college classmate and initial partner of Orson Fowler) actively promoted phrenology as a source of psychological insight and personal growth. British Prime Minister Lloyd George was known to have a keen interest in the subject, once contriving a meeting with C.P. Snow after noticing that the author had "an interestingly shaped head." Thousands of people consulted phrenologists to get advice in various matters, such as hiring personnel or finding suitable marriage partners. However, phrenology was rejected by mainstream academia, and was excluded from the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The popularity of phrenology fluctuated throughout the 19th century, with some researchers comparing the field to astrology, chiromancy, or merely a fairground attraction, while others wrote serious scientific articles on the subject.<br />
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Phrenology was also very popular in the United States, where automatic devices for phrenological analysis were devised. One such Automatic Electric Phrenometer is displayed in the Collection of Questionable Medical Devices in the Science Museum of Minnesota in Saint Paul.<br />
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In the early 20th century, phrenology benefitted from revived interest, partly fueled by the studies of evolution, criminology and anthropology (as pursued by Cesare Lombroso). The most prominent British phrenologist of the 20th century was the famous London psychiatrist Bernard Hollander (1864-1934). His main works, The Mental Function of the Brain (1901) and Scientific Phrenology (1902) are an appraisal of Gall's teachings. Hollander introduced a quantitative approach to the phrenological diagnosis, defining a methodology for measuring the skull, and comparing the measurements with statistical averages.<br />
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Phrenology was practiced by some scientists promoting racist ideologies, including Nazism. They used phrenological claims, among other biological evidence, as a scientific basis for Aryan racial superiority.<br />
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In Belgium, Paul Bouts (1900-1999) began studying phrenology from a pedagogical background, using the phrenological analysis to define an individual pedagogy. Combining phrenology with typology and graphology, he coined a global approach known as psychognomy.<br />
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Prof. Bouts, a Roman Catholic priest, became the main promoter of renewed 20th-century interest in phrenology and psychognomy in Belgium. He was also active in Brazil and Canada, where he founded institutes for characterology. His works Psychognomie and Les Grandioses Destinées individuelle et humaine dans la lumière de la Caractérologie et de l'Evolution cérébro-cranienne are considered standard works in the field. In the latter work, which examines the subject of paleoanthropology, Bouts developed a teleological and orthogenetical view on a perfecting evolution, from the paleo-encephalical skull shapes of prehistoric man, which he considered still prevalent in criminals and savages, towards a higher form of mankind. Bouts died on March 7, 1999, after which his work has been continued by the Dutch foundation PPP (Per Pulchritudinem in Pulchritudine), operated by Anette Müller, one of Bouts' students.<br />
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In the 1930's Belgian colonial authorities in Rwanda used phrenology to explain the so-called superiority of Tutsis over Hutus.[citation needed]<br />
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Empirical refutation induced most scientists to abandon phrenology as a science by the early 20th century. For example, various cases were observed of clearly aggressive persons displaying a well-developed "benevolent organ", findings that contradicted the logic of the discipline. With advances in the studies of psychology and psychiatry, many scientists became skeptical of the claim that human character can be determined by simple, external measures.<br />
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On Monday, October 1, 2007 the State of Michigan began to impose a tax on phrenology services.[5]<br />
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[edit] Methodology<br />
Phrenology was a complex process that involved feeling the bumps in the skull to determine an individual's psychological attributes. Franz Joseph Gall first believed that the brain was made up of 27 individual 'organs' that created one's personality, with the first 19 of these 'organs' believed to exist in other animal species. Phrenologists would run their fingertips and palms over the skulls of their patients to feel for enlargements or indentations. The phrenologist would usually take measurements of the overall head size using a caliper. With this information, the phrenologist would assess the character and temperament of the patient and address each of the 27 "brain organs". This type of analysis was used to predict the kinds of relationships and behaviors to which the patient was prone. In its heyday during the 1820s-1840s, phrenology was often used to predict a child's future life, to assess prospective marriage partners and to provide background checks for job applicants.<br />
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Gall's list of the "brain organs" was lengthy and specific, as he believed that each bump or indentation in a patient's skull corresponded to his "brain map". An enlarged bump meant that the patient utilized that particular "organ" extensively. The 27 areas were highly varied in function, from sense of color, to the likelihood of religiosity, to the potential to commit murder. Each of the 27 "brain organs" was found in a specific area of the skull. As the phrenologist felt the skull, he could refer to a numbered diagram showing where each functional area was believed to be located.<br />
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The 27 "brain organs" were:<br />
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The instinct of reproduction (located in the cerebellum).<br />
The love of one's offspring.<br />
Affection and friendship.<br />
The instinct of self-defense and courage; the tendency to get into fights.<br />
The carnivorous instinct; the tendency to murder.<br />
Guile; acuteness; cleverness.<br />
The feeling of property; the instinct of stocking up on food (in animals); covetousness; the tendency to steal.<br />
Pride; arrogance; haughtiness; love of authority; loftiness.<br />
Vanity; ambition; love of glory (a quality "beneficent for the individual and for society").<br />
Circumspection; forethought.<br />
The memory of things; the memory of facts; educability; perfectibility.<br />
The sense of places; of space proportions.<br />
The memory of people; the sense of people.<br />
The memory of words.<br />
The sense of language; of speech.<br />
The sense of colors.<br />
The sense of sounds; the gift of music.<br />
The sense of connectedness between numbers.<br />
The sense of mechanics, of construction; the talent for architecture.<br />
Comparative sagacity.<br />
The sense of metaphysics.<br />
The sense of satire; the sense of witticism.<br />
The poetical talent.<br />
Kindness; benevolence; gentleness; compassion; sensitivity; moral sense.<br />
The faculty to imitate; the mimic.<br />
The organ of religion.<br />
The firmness of purpose; constancy; perseverance; obstinacy.<br />
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[edit] Phrenology as a pseudoscience<br />
Pseudoscientific concepts<br />
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Claims:<br />
Shape of the head determines character, personality traits and criminality.<br />
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Related scientific disciplines:<br />
Medicine, Psychology<br />
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Year proposed: 1800<br />
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Original proponents:<br />
Franz Joseph Gall<br />
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Current proponents:<br />
Per Pulchritudinem in Pulchritudine<br />
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Phrenology has long been dismissed as a pseudoscience, in the wake of neurological advances. During the discipline's heyday, phrenologists including Gall committed many errors in the name of science. In the book, The Beginner's Guide to Scientific Method by Stephen S. Carey, it is explained that pseudoscience can be defined as "fallacious applications of the scientific method" by today's standards. Phrenologists inferred dubious inferences between bumps in people's skulls and their personalities, claiming that the bumps were the determinant of personality. Some of the more valid assumptions of phrenology (e.g., that mental processes can be localized in the brain) remain in modern neuroimaging techniques and modularity of mind theory. Through advancements in modern medicine and neuroscience, the scientific community has generally concluded that feeling conformations of the outer skull is not an accurate predictor of behavior.<br />
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[edit] Popular culture<br />
In Bram Stoker's Dracula, several characters make phrenological observations in describing other characters.<br />
Charlotte Brontë, as well as her two famous Brontë sisters, display the belief in phrenology in their works.<br />
On the popular television cartoon The Simpsons, Mr. Burns attempts to interpret behaviour through ideas of phrenology in the episode "Mother Simpson", prompting his assistant Smithers to inform him that it was "dismissed as quackery 160 years ago." Smithers has the brainpan of a stagecoach tilter.<br />
The television personality Stephen Colbert, played by the comedian of the same name, claims to be a proponent of phrenology. In the February 8, 2007 episode of The Colbert Report, Colbert waved off "speculation" about a presidential bid, claiming that he must first sit down with his family, and his phrenologist. "I know these lumps are trying to tell me something." He said, adding, "Phrenology is the study of lumps on your head. It'd be another good campaign slogan." [1]<br />
Popular Indian-English writer Amitav Ghosh's first novel The Circle of Reason (1986) has one of the main characters, Balaram practice phrenology obsessively.<br />
The QI Book, The Book of General Ignorance, has a "phrenology bust" pictured on the dust jacket.<br />
Terry Pratchett, in his Discworld series of books, describes the practice of Retro-phrenology as the practice of altering someone's character by giving them bumps on the head. You can go into a shop in Ankh-Morpork and order an artistic temperament with a tendency to introspection. What you actually get is hit on the head with a large hammer, but it keeps the money in circulation and gives people something to do. This was first described in Mr Midshipman Easy, where a vacuum pump was used to enlarge organs.<br />
The comedy-musical play Heid (pronounced 'Heed', a Scottish inflection of the word 'Head') by Forbes Masson alluded to the phrenology work of George Combe, citing the pseudoscience's influence on a young Charles Darwin as an inspiration for writers.<br />
The hip-hop group The Roots released an album in 2002 called Phrenology, using the term to discuss race.<br />
The film Pi depicts the main character, Max, outlining a portion of his skull according to a phrenology chart and proceeding to drill into that section to destroy a part of his brain that contained important information of a mathematical sequence that he thought nobody should know.<br />
The film Men at Work contains a joke about a phrenology bust.<br />
Several literary critics have noted the influence of phrenology[6] (and physiognomy) in Edgar Allan Poe's fiction.[7]<br />
In the episode "Duh Bomb" in the TV show Kenan & Kel, a woman practices phrenology on Kel's head.<br />
The Online store "Inner Coma Clothing Co.[2]." Refers to the section of the site that sells hats as its "Phrenology" section.<br />
The cover art of the Bob Schneider album Lonelyland depicts a phrenology chart.<br />
In the computer game American McGee's Alice, a phrenology chart appears on the wall of the initial room in the level Skool Daze. A portion on the back of the neck is labeled "fear" (in place of "sublimity" on the original chart).<br />
In the They Might Be Giants album The Else, the song "Contrecoup" mentions phrenology at numerous points throughout the song.<br />
Pearl Jam's 1994 album Vitalogy displays a phrenology chart in the booklet.<br />
Phrenology and other 19th-century medicinal practices are humorously parodied in the game manual for Freddy Pharkas: Frontier Pharmacist. You can read the manual here.<br />
In the novel The War of the End of the World from the well-known Latin American writer Mario Vargas Llosa, one of the main characters is Galileo Gall, who is phrenologist and had adopted his new name because of Galileo Galilei and Franz Joseph Gall, founder of the science of phrenology. [3]<br />
Gender-Illusionist Fudgie Frottage is a Doctor of Phrenology, practising in San Francisco, CA<br />
In the novel Moby-Dick by Herman Melville many references are made to phrenology and the narrator identifies himself as an amateur phrenologist.<br />
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[edit] See also<br />
Physiognomy<br />
Pathognomy<br />
Characterology<br />
Personology<br />
Psychognomy<br />
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[edit] References<br />
^ Magendie, F (1843) An Elementary Treatise on Human Physiology. 5th Ed. Tr. John Revere. New York: Harper, p 150. (note the hyphen).<br />
^ Simpson, D. (2005) Phrenology and the neurosciences: contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim ANZ Journal of Surgery. Oxford. Vol.75.6; p.475<br />
^ Fodor, Jerry A. (1983). Modularity of Mind: An Essay on Faculty Psychology. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-56025-9 p.14, 23, 131 See also, Modularity of mind<br />
^ 1833 "The American Journal of the Medical Sciences" Southern Society for Clinical Investigation<br />
^ http://www.detroitchamber.com/public_affairs/index.asp?cid=1&rcid=1624<br />
^ Edward Hungerford. "Poe and Phrenology", American Literature 1(1930): 209-31.<br />
^ Erik Grayson. "Weird Science, Weirder Unity: Phrenology and Physiognomy in Edgar Allan Poe" Mode 1 (2005): 56-77. Also online.<br />
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[edit] External links<br />
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:<br />
PhrenologyPhrenology: an Overview includes The History of Phrenology by John van Wyhe, PhD.<br />
The Phrenology Pages, a Belgian site advocating phrenology.<br />
Phrenology. The History of Cerebral Localization. Article by Renato M.E. Sabbatini, PhD in Brain & Mind online article.<br />
Phrenology Today! Russian portal, advocating phrenology. Articles on so-called modern phrenology.<br />
Examples of phrenological tools can be seen in The Museum of Questionable Medical Devices, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S..<br />
Joseph Vimont: Traité de phrénologie humaine et comparée. (Paris, 1832-1835). Selected pages scanned from the original work. Historical Anatomies on the Web. US National Library of Medicine.<br />
Phrenology: History of a Classic Pseudoscience - by Steven Novella MD<br />
Historical Deadwood Newspaper accounts of C. R. Broadbent well known speaker on Phrenology and Physiology visit Deadwood SD 1878<br />
The Skeptic's Dictionary by Robert Todd Carroll<br />
Who Named It? Franz Joseph Gall Biography of Franz Joseph Gall and his creation: Phrenology.<br />
Phrenology by George Burgess (1829-1905) George Burgess, Phrenologist in Bristol, England 1861-1901.<br />
History of the Phrenology Bust as developed by Spurzheim.<br />
George Combe's Elements of Phrenology.<br />
Psychophysiognomy Today! Polish portal, advocating psychophysiognomy. Articles on modern psychophysiognomy and the current use of psychophysiognomy in the personal consultation CVonVideo<br />
Phrenology Tools of the Trade. </div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-65155149684864407822008-09-25T11:39:00.000-07:002012-11-19T07:17:39.663-08:00Eponims in NeuroanatomyHerein it is reviewed several contributions to neuroanatomy in the period extending from the renaissance, when interest in the old Greek medicine revived, to the end of the 18 th century. I will concentrate on three eponyms: 1) the circle of Willis; 2) the Sylvian fissure; 3) the foramen of Monro. The work of these three eponymists will be put into the context of the evolution in neuroanatomy of the period in which they worked. Contributions to neuroanatomy have been added over the centuries, although to a lesser degree in the period between Galen (130-200) and the renaissance. Galen’s work had been authoritative for over twelve centuries. Medieval physicians kept to his anatomy unquestioning. It had about the same status in medicine as the bible in religion. Important renovations started in the renaissance period. <br />
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It became possible to dissect human beings, in some cases only once a year (14 th century), at first mainly to confirm Galen’s findings. Although Mondino de Luzzi (1275-1326) had dissected thirteen bodies himself, his successors again climbed the cathedra to leave the handwork to their assistants. 1,p.125 Among the first persons in this period to work on neuroanatomy was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), one of the great artists of Italian renaissance. He is known to have produced beautiful neuroanatomical work, but he is not considered important with this respect as his work did not contribute to progress during his period. Much of his work was kept in sketchbooks to be discovered more than two centuries later. With respect to general anatomy, Vesalius (1514-1564) is considered one of the most important anatomists, as he discovered many errors in Galen’s teachings. He did not neglect the nervous system. His Fabrica (1543) shows several neuroanatomical figures. In the seventh book e.g., fifteen diagrams of the brain are depicted. With respect to neuroanatomy Giacomo Berengario da Carpi (c.1460-c.1530, also known as Berengarius), who was born near Modena and taught in Pavia and Bologna, handed the knife himself, like Da Vinci, and opened many bodies. He discovered an error in Galen’s neuroanatomy prior to Vesalius: he found that there is no rete mirabile, a plexus of anastomising vessels at the base of the brain in human being (1523). 2,p.38 Other persons who made contributions to neuroanatomy during this period were the German Lorenz Fries (Laurentius Phryesen 1489-1550), the French Charles Estienne (1503-1564, also called Stephanus), the German Johann Eichmann (Dryander 1500-1560) and the Italian Bartolomeo Eustachi (1520-1574, also called Eustachius, well-known for the tube he described, but that was known previously to Alcmaeon of Croton as was mentioned by Aristotle). Although Eustachius produced good pictures of the base of the brain, including cranial nerves and pons, the latter structure is associated with Varolio. Vesalius (1514-1564) From Fabrica (1543) book VII fig. 7A new method in brain anatomy - The pons Varolii Costanzo Varolio, also called Varolius (1543-1575) was professor of anatomy at Bologna university, the oldest university in the world, founded in 1088. He became physician to pope Gregory XIII. His method for dissection of the brain was new. Whereas his predecessors dissected the brain from top down, he made sections from base to top. He wrote about his new method in a letter addressed to Gerolamo Mercurale (1530-1606; Padova, 1572). By applying this method, it was easier to observe structures at the base of the brain. In his 1573 De nervis opticis nonnullisque aliis praetor communem opinionem in Humano capite observatis. (Patavii, apud Paulum et Antonium Meiettos fratres), he was able to observe several structures, including the hippocampus, the cerebral peduncles, and the pons. The latter structure had been omitted by Vesalius (Fabrica, 4 th book). Furthermore, he was able to describe the course and termination of the cranial nerves. 2,p.49 Moreover, he followed the course of the optic nerve. 3,p.216 Varolius (1543-1575) ‘Processus transversalis cerebri, qui dicitur Pons’ Dye injections in neuroanatomy - The circle of Willis 2,p.55-61,4 Entering the 17 th century, several important contributions to neuroanatomy were made. Probably the most important person was Thomas Willis (1621-1675). He studied at Oxford University, after which he became one of the most important physicians there and a member of the Virtuosi, an informal group of experimental scientists. He described his method of medical research, based on careful notes taken on individual patients, as what might be called inductive generalization. He compared the notes of his observations and adapted general notions from particular events. 5 This method became the common denominator of his clinical writings (1659 to 1675). He developed his own chemical, neuroanatomical, and neuropathological research and lectured about the results and their interpretation. At the time, he was still aware of Aristotle, but even more of the "moderns", including Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655), the Epicurean antagonist of René Descartes. The philosopher John Locke (1632-1704), a medical student, took notes of Willis' lectures. Willis’ books were printed in Latin, but they are now usually quoted from the 1681 English translation by the Restoration playwright, Samuel Pordage (1633-1691), which is far from accurate. 6 This is a serious source of misunderstandings, since researchers of our time regularly mistake Pordage's translation for Willis' original. Willis' The anatomy of the brain (1664), probably his best known work, is the source for the eponym, the Circle of Willis. 7 The book was the result of a first attempt to use what would now be called an interdisciplinary approach to unravel the secrets of the nervous system. Willis had previous experience of working in teams with William Petty (1623-1687), other Oxford Virtuosi, but also with practicing physicians. He and his collaborators, Richard Lower (1631-1691), Thomas Millington (1628-1704), and Christopher Wren (1632- 1723, architect of St. Paul's cathedral in London), used neuroanatomy, comparative neuroanatomy, animal experiments, pathological neuroanatomy, intravenous dye injections, and several new ways of preparing human and animal brains. The intravenous dye injections were only second to work of the Dutch anatomist Frederik Ruysch (1638-1731). Willis’ descriptions and illustrations of the brain and its vessels and nerves were more accurate and complete than what had been presented before. ...we have already shewn, that these Vessels are variously and very much ingrafted or inoculated among themselves, not only the Arteries with the Veins, but what is more rare and singular, Arteries with Arteries; to wit, the Carotidick Arteries of one side, in many places, are united with the Carotides of the other side; besides the Vertebrals of either side among themselves, and are also inoculated into the posterior branches of the Carotides before united. The joynings together of the Carotides, in most living Creatures, are made about the Basis of the Skull under the Dura Mater... 8, p.82Thomas Willis (1621-1675) The Circle of Willis The system of anastomoses at the base of the brain had been partly described previously by Gabriele Fallopio (1523-1562), a pupil of Vesalius, Guilio Casserio (1545-1605), teacher of William Harvey (1578- 1657), Johann Vesling (1595-1649), both teaching at Padua, and others. The Swiss physician Johann Jakob Wepfer (1620-1695) is said to have priority over Willis for the complete description of the Circle in his book on stroke of 1658. 9,p.65 However, the arguments in favor of Willis are stronger. He published the first complete illustration of the Circle, probably drawn by Wren, with the help of the new method of taking the brain out of the skull developed by Willis' team. His case of a man who died of a mesenteric tumor, having lived without any neurological deficit despite a nearly obliterated right carotid artery, probably with the help of the right vertebral artery, which was three times its normal size, shows that Willis was aware of the physiological importance of the Circle. In his work, the original anatomical preparation, its correct illustration, and the interpretation within a coherent clinical, neuroanatomical, and neurophysiological context provide the background and adequate setting for the eponym. Willis reclassified the cranial nerves into nine pairs, moving the trochlear nerve to the fourth position (from the original eighth). Terms introduced by him were thalamus opticus, lentiform bodies, and corpus striatum. He also described the spinal accessory nerve. He attributed vital functions to the cerebellum due to imprecise experiments, probably also damaging the lower brainstem. He localized perception in the corpora striata, memory to the gyri, instinct to the midbrain, and imagination to the corpus callosum, moving away from the ancient ventricular localization. 2,p.55-61 He wrote on several ‘diseases of the brain’, including convulsive diseases, seizures, hysteria, hypochondria, and extrapyramidal disorders. In his London Practice of Physick (1685), he described myasthenia gravis, but also cases of migraine. He described what would come to be known as Jacksonian epilepsy, explaining the gradual progress of the convulsions as the result of accumulation of exploding animal spirits in the nerves originating in the brain, a typical iatrochemical explanation of the period (vide infra). In a treatise on hysteria and hypochondria, he appended a discourse on the warming of the blood, introducing the theory of internal combustion within the blood, with the help of oxygen absorbed from the lung. Another appended treatise, "of muscular motion", explained muscle contraction as an effect of explosions with the muscle, increasing its volume, and shortening its length. In his De anima brutorum (1672), he wrote two chapters on headache. He classified different types of headache according to the time pattern (continuous, intermittent and intermittent with vague and uncertain attacks). This division shows similarities to the one used in the classification of fevers. Interesting is the following part from these chapters: he mentioned that headache may appear in seasonal clusters of daily attacks at fixed hours. He observed polyuria as a symptom of migraine attacks, slowly ascending aura symptoms, as well as premonitory symptoms, such as hunger. He described symptoms that may be interpreted as a slowly spreading spasm and presumed that headache is caused by increased supply of blood, moving more rapidly "and, boiling up towards the head, is constricted, or stopped, in its passage at predisposed sites; then it soon gathers there in greater abundance and distends the vessels, strongly inflating the membranes, tearing the nerve fibres apart from each other, and thus inducing painful corrugations in them". 10 In April 1657, Willis married Mary Fell and they had nine children. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1663, and in 1666, he moved to London, where he lived as a practicing physician. After the death of his wife in 1670, he married Elizabeth Calley in 1672. Willis died from pneumonia in 1675 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Another method of brain sectioning - The Sylvian Aqueduct and Fissure 11,12 The name Sylvius is associated with various structures within the nervous system, including the fissure and aqueduct between the third and fourth ventricle. The latter structure has been associated with Jacobus Sylvius (1478-1555), the Paris professor of anatomy, who was one of the teachers of Vesalius The aqueduct,however, had already been mentioned in De usum partium, where Galen pointed to a canal that provided a communication between the cerebrum and cerebellum. However, he may have meant the extension of the third ventricle into the subarachnoid space (recessus pinealis). In his Fabrica (1543), Vesalius mentioned an ‘anuslike orifice of the meatus which extends from the third to the fourth ventricle’ below the quadrigeminal bodies. Jacobus Sylvius probably used the description of his pupil Vesalius. However, this was not the source of the ascription of the aqueduct to Sylvius. The source is found in chapter 21 of Sylvius’ Disputationem medicarum decas (1663), where he described a canalis vel aquae-ductus between the conjoined roots of the spinal cord and under "our bridge" [pons Varoli] and the corpora quadrigemina. The aqueduct was certainly known before Sylvius, and in that respect Haller 13 and Morgagni 14 were correct when they called attention to the impropriety of naming the aqueduct after Franciscus Sylvius. It seems that the attribution followed Thomas Bartholinus' words, a homage to his contribution to the anatomy of the cerebrum. Franciscus dele Boë (1614-1672), called Sylvius, descendant from a protestant family from Cambrai, France, whose family had moved to Germany for religious reasons, was born in Hanau. Following his medical studies at the universities of Sedan, France and Leiden, The Netherlands, where he held a disputation entitled Positiones variae medicae (1634), he made a study-tour to Southern German universities. He became doctor of medicine at the university of Basel (1637), defending a thesis entitled De animali motu ejusque laesionibus. Following a short period of practicing medicine in his birthplace, he graduated again at Leiden University in 1638. During the second period there, he became famous for his anatomy courses. In the funeral oration, it was said that “many students, and certainly not the worst ones, attended his courses, so that it seemed as if only he could understand and explain anatomy”. 15 One of these students was Thomas Bartholinus (1616- 1680), son of the famous Danish anatomist Caspar Bartholinus (‘the elder’, 1585-1629). Thomas' notes of the course of 1640-1641 were included in the 1641 edition of his father's well-known textbook Institutiones anatomicae. They were later published separately as Dictata ad C. Bartholini Institutiones Anatomicas in Sylvius's Opera. Franciscus dele Boe, Sylvius (1614-1672) Thomas Bartholinus (1616-1680) Physiology at the time was an integral part of anatomy. It was not unusual that Sylvius demonstrated the circulation of the blood. He convinced the professors of the medical faculty of the truth of William Harvey's theory. In fact, Harvey’s 1628 publication (De motu cordis) had caused a scientific storm, leading to a flood of publications pro and contra. The reaction was similar to the one caused by Vesalius’ 1543 publication, also considered by some to be a form of impetuous modernism against the authority of Galen. Several physicians and philosophers working in the Netherlands, defended the theory, including the physician Johan van Beverwijck (1594-1647) and René Descartes (1595-1650; see his Discours de la méthode, although he misinterpreted the diastole), who both corresponded with Harvey. The circulation-concept was not new to Sylvius; he had already defended the lung circulation in his thesis of 1634, i.e. six years after Harvey's De motu cordis. Since there was no prospect of a professorship in Leiden, Sylvius moved to Amsterdam (1641), where he practiced for seventeen years, spending his leisure hours in anatomy and chemistry. In 1658, he returned to Leiden, where he became professor of medicine, officially accepting the chair with an inaugural address De Hominis Cognitione. He often taught at the bedside during daily visits to patients in the local Caecilia Hospital, usually about frequently occurring diseases. Applying the Socratic method, he guided his students to the correct diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy. He demonstrated the nature of the pathological changes by post-mortem examination. His clinical teaching method attracted many students even from abroad. Little is known of Sylvius's family life. He married Anna de Lingne in 1649, when he was still living in Amsterdam. They had two children that died early. His wife died in 1657, the year before Sylvius moved to Leiden. In December 1666, he married Magdalena L. Schletzer. One daughter was born from this marriage, but both, mother and daughter died during the plague of 1669, Magdalena at the age of 21. Sylvius suffered seriously from the plague but survived.Anatomy was one of the pillars of Sylvius's medical system. His contributions to the anatomy of the brain were recognized by Thomas Bartholinus, who wrote in the revised edition of his father, Caspar's anatomy textbook (1641, translated and published several times) that ‘we can not pass over in silence the very accurate anatomist D. Franciscus Sylvius [since] we borrow from his noble brain and ingenuity the admirable new structure of the brain’. 16 Sylvius' "notae de cerebro" are clearly indicated by "F.S." in the textbook. According to his pupil Niels Stensen (1638-1686), he developed his own method of dissecting the brain. It may be considered a combination of the traditional approach of Galen and that of Varolius, whose method was described above. The discoveries in neuroanatomy were published in the disputation De spirituum animalium in cerebro, cerebelloque confectione, per nervos distributione, atque usu vario, defended by the student Gabriel Ypelaer under Sylvius' supervision in 1660. It was included as fourth disputation in Sylvius' Disputationem medicarum decas (1663). The fissura cerebri lateralis Sylvii is described in paragraph nine of the thesis. ...the surface of the cerebrum is very deeply marked by twistings (gyri) which are somewhat similar to convolutions of the small intestine. Particularly noticeable is the deep fissure or hiatus which begins at the roots of the eyes (oculorum radices)... it runs posteriorly above the temples as far as the origin of the brain stem (medullae radices). It divides the cerebrum into an upper, larger part and a lower, smaller part. Twistings occur along the fissure's length and depth even with the origins of smaller convolutions at the most superior part of it. 17 The Sylvian fissure This is no doubt the first description of this structure, as is testified by Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777). 18 It derives from Sylvius' accurate study of the outer surface of the brain carried out as a consequence of his interest in the distribution of the vascular system on the brain surface and from his interest in the gray matter as far it was related to the production of the animal spirits. Iatrochemistry in Sylvius’ and Willis’ work 1,pp.148-54,11 Following the discussion of Willis and Sylvius, a few words should be dedicated to important physiological ideas of the period. As written above, physiology at the time was naturally included in the subject of anatomy. The discovery of the circulation endorsed the iatrophysical school of thought, in which physicians tried to explain physiology and pathophysiology by physical ways. Another school of thought at the time was iatrochemistry, a system in which physiology, pathology, and therapy were described in chemical terms. The latter system is considered to have been prepared by Paracelsus (1493-1541) and Van Helmont (1577-1644). The Scientific Revolution led to new ideas about the processes of food assimilation, excretion, and breathing. Moreover it furthered new practices in drug therapy. 19 Sylvius may be considered one of the proponents of iatrochemistry. In fact, his iatrochemistry was a chemical humoral pathology. Fundamental to his system was the effervescence, i.e. the vehement reaction between acid and alkaline secretions thought to occur, for instance, in the duodenum or the right ventricle of the heart. Sylvius rejected the classical qualities and humors. From classical physiology, he only retained the concept of animal spirits. These spirits were believed to be isolated from blood and transported by the carotid and cervical arteries in the capillaries of the brain surface in a process analogous to distillation. The most spiritual part of the blood passed the pores of capillaries, first in the gray matter and then in the white matter. During this process, the aqueous parts were eliminated and "coagulated" to a fluid which moved through the ventricles. The animal spirit was the finest and purest body fluid. It resembled wine spirit, easily evaporating and expanding. It was partly used in the brain itself and partly transported through the nerves to the muscles. There, the unused animal spirit was reabsorbed by lymphatics and returned to the blood for re-use. Sylvius published his pathophysiology under the title Praxeos medica idea nova. Unfortunately, he could only complete the first volume (1671). The other volumes were published posthumously by a former pupil.Generally speaking, diseases were caused by abnormal effervescences due to abnormal secretions that could be either sharp alkaline or sharp acidic. A defective animal spirit resulting from accumulation of a volatile acid spirit, for instance, was thought to cause epilepsy. For treatment the physicians prescribed alkaline salts, opposing the action of the excess of acid. Although Sylvius had many pupils who became famous (Bartholinus, Stensen, De Graaf, Swammerdam), iatrochemistry in the Netherlands was not endorsed by influential naturalists. However, this was different abroad, for instance in Germany, France, and England. In the latter country, Willis was considered an important advocate of iatrochemical physiology, applying the method in practice in a more scientific way than Sylvius. Spirits, salt, sulfur, water, and earth were considered the elements causing fermentation in the body. He attached importance to the animal spirits, pushing Sylvius’ role of alkali and acid to the background. Finally, however, the iatrochemical school was defeated by the iatrophysical school. The iatrophysical school 1,p.153-4, 2, p.71-9 Although Isaac Newton (1642-1727) is considered one of the most important scientists of the so-called Scientific Revolution of the 16 th and 17 th centuries, one of the founders of mechanics in Italy was the Galileo Galileï (1564-1642), who opined that measuring and weighing should be among the principles of physics. This country would be the first where naturalists tried to explain biological functions in this way. Sanctorius (1561- 1636), professor in Padua and Venice, tried to introduce several instruments for measuring physiological and pathological processes. Other important naturalists to apply iatrophysics were Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (1608- 1679), who, like Descartes, stayed at queen Christina’s court in Sweden, Lorenzo Bellini (1643-1704), and Giorgi Baglivi (1668-1707). Borelli believed that muscles contracted by discharge of a fluid from the hollow nerve into the muscle. Using a nerve-muscle preparation, the Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680) demonstrated that the nerve did not inflate any substance into the muscle. The volume of the muscle did not change during contraction. Typical iatrophysical pictures from Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (1608-1679) Borelli’s De motu animalium (1680) One of the most influential proponents of the iatrophysical school was René Descartes (1596-1650), who lived at several places in The Netherlands for a large part of his life, where most of his books were published. He became one of the proponents of the iatrophysical school, which may be demonstrated in several of his books, including Des passions de l’âme (1649) and De Homine (1662), in which he demonstrated reflex action. The Danish Niels Stensen (1643-1686) may also be considered an important iatrophysicist. He was very critical about Willis’ De cerebri anatome, demanding a more scientific approach, reproaching him too many speculations. During a presentation in Paris (at Thévenot’s home, 1665), he said: ‘Messieurs, au lieu de vous promettre de contenter vostre curiosité touchant l’anatomie du cerveau, je vous fais icy une confession sincère et publique, que je n’y connois rien [sic]’. [Gentlemen, instead of promising to satisfy your curiosity with regard to cerebral anatomy, I confess sincerely and publicly, I don’t know anything about it]. 20 Though living a few decades later, another important proponent of iatrophysics was Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738), who is best characterized as a systematist. ‘He taught a body of doctrines whose parts integrated one with the other to form a well-organized whole’. 21 Almost every phenomenon dealing with health or disease could be explained in this system. The systems originated from observation complemented by reasoning. In fact, his system had three major sources, a) the laws of mechanics (iatrophysics); b) findings from microscopy; and c) knowledge resulting from vascular injections. 22Interestingly, some critics considered the iatrochemical and iatrophysical schools phenomena of decay, returning to pre-renaissance deduction instead of modern induction, in which observation and experiment played an important role. Bedside observation gradually became more important than theorizing. The most important medical school, applying bedside teaching, in the first part of the 18 th century was Leiden University, where Boerhaave was teaching. With respect to (patho)physiology, he applied humoral as well as solid theories. He considered nerves to be hollow, arising from the medulla of the brain and spinal cord. Spirits still formed the basis of his explanation of the function. He localized the sensorium commune at the transition of white and gray matter. His teachings belong to the most influential of the 18 th century. After his death in 1738, the centre of medical teaching gradually moved to Edinburgh, where the following eponymist would teach. The foramen of Monro 23 Alexander Monro "Secundus" (1733-1817) was born in a family of medical tradition. His grandfather John Monro (1670-1740) had studied medicine at Leiden under his compatriot Archibald Pitcairne (1652-1713), and became one of the protagonists of the foundation of a medical school at Edinburgh. John Monro trained his son Alexander Monro "Primus" (1697-1767) to become the first professor of anatomy at Edinburgh (1719), after studying with Boerhaave in Leiden, and with William Cheselden (1688-1752) in London. Monro “Secundus” began his medical studies at Edinburgh in 1752. He also became a pupil of William Hunter (1718- 1783) in London. He began to give evening lectures in anatomy for his father in his second year as a medical student (1753). He took his MD degree and became assistant professor of anatomy and surgery two years later. He stayed in Berlin with Johann Friedrich Meckel (1714-1774) for a short period, and when his father became ill, he took over the Edinburgh anatomy chair from him (1758). In addition to teaching students anatomy, medicine, and surgery for over fifty years, increasing from about sixty to over 400 students a year by 1800, Monro "Secundus" was considered one of the leading Edinburgh practicing physicians. "Secundus" later also occupied chairs in medicine and surgery, and passed on his chair of anatomy in 1798 to his son Alexander Monro "Tertius" (1773-1859), who occupied the chair till 1846, keeping it a "family chair" for 126 years. Despite the fact that he held three chairs, including that of surgery, Monro "Secundus" practiced little surgery. Moreover, he failed to teach surgery and surgical anatomy adequately, which led the Edinburgh surgeons to ask for a separate chair of clinical surgery; but Monro succeeded in blocking the proposal. Another black mark against "Secundus" was his manipulation of the succession of his son Alexander "Tertius" to his chair of anatomy. Charles Darwin (1809-1882), who came to Edinburgh to study medicine in 1825, wrote that the lectures of Monro "Tertius" on human anatomy were as dull as he was himself. 24 "Secundus'" first original book was: Observations on the Structure and Functions of the Nervous System (1783), 25 containing his unpublished much earlier work on the anatomy of the cerebral ventricles. The clinical content was clearly influenced by his senior colleague Robert Whytt (1714-1766), who had been professor of both the practice of medicine, and of the institutes of medicine (physiology). Whytt was one of the originators of the pre-eminence of the Edinburgh school later in that century (after Boerhaave’s death in Leiden, 1738); it attracted students from afar, including the future leaders of American medicine, by the quality of the teaching of Joseph Black (1728-1799) in chemistry, William Cullen (1710-1790) and John Gregory (1725-1773) in medicine, and of Monro "Secundus" in anatomy, as well as in medicine. Monro "Secundus’ " studies included the anatomy of the eye and ear, and the nature of the nerve impulse. He was acquainted with the leaders of the "Scottish Enlightenment", the historian William Robertson, the philosopher David Hume, the economist Adam Smith, the chemist Joseph Black, the mathematician John Playfair, as well as his medical colleagues. He was married to Katherine Inglis by whom he had seven children. He continued to teach till 1807 and died in his 85th year in 1817. In his classical Observations on the Structure and Functions of the Nervous System (1783) Monro “Secundus” stated that he had first demonstrated the foramen (or, more correctly, the two foramina) thirty years earlier at the age of 20 years. So far back as the year 1753, soon after I began the study of anatomy, I discovered that the lateral ventricles of the human brain communicated with each other, and at the same place, with the Middle or Third ventricle ... the four ventricles are in reality different parts of one cavity. 25 In this book he also quoted a letter written in 1762 in Latin by John Morgan (1735-1789) to Sir John Pringle (1707-1782) about Monro's demonstration of the foramen to himself and other Edinburgh students; Morgan was to be the founder of the first American medical school in Philadephia. In 1764 Monro “Secundus”, with Whytt and his own elder brother Donald Monro (1728-1802), consulted on a three year old boy with hydrocephalus, which was followed by autopsy. In December of the same year, he read a paper to the Edinburgh Philosophical Society, the forerunner of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, on the communications of the ventricles. Although he was the Secretary of the Society, he did not publish it in the Society'sTransactions. The book contains drawings of the normal third ventricle, marking the site of the foramen, the anatomical relations, the vein from the lateral ventricle passing through the foramen into the third ventricle, to form posteriorly the vein of Galen. Monro gave due credit to earlier anatomical descriptions of the cerebral ventricles which had indicated continuity of the four ventricles, particularly by Galen. Monro also referred to observations by Vieussens, Winslow, and Lieutaud, but was critical of their lack of anatomical detail. A major, and wrong, criticism by Albrecht von Haller's (1708-1777), was Monro's denial of connection between the fourth ventricle and the spinal canal: the correct detailed description of the fourth ventricle foramina came from François Magendie (1825) and Hubert von Luschka (1859), whose names are still associated with the medial and lateral foramina respectively. Monro would not have known Leonardo da Vinci's drawings of wax casts of a continuous ventricular system. 26 Monro's other book (1797), 27 entitled Three Treatises of the Brain, the Eye and the Ear, of which the first is Observations on the Communications of the Ventricles of the Brain with each other and on the Internal Hydrocephalus, repeats the 1783 descriptions, with further drawings of normal anatomy by Andrew Fyfe. In the 1797 text Monro discusses the symptoms and signs of both chronic and acute hydrocephalus, following Whytt's earlier teaching, and properly dismisses both medical and surgical treatment of hydrocephalus. As recently as 1925 Harvey Cushing 28 had to agree with this negative attitude: ... infants with hydrocephalus - for which a greater number of treatments have as yet been advocated (I have been guilty of advocating one or two myself) than successes recorded - if indeed there are any clear-cut successes recorded. They have come since, with the advent of tolerable plastic shunt tubing. Also, structural abnormalities at the foramen of Monro are often amenable to direct neurosurgical treatment. Alexander Monro "Secundus" (1733-1817) F: a natural passage by which the lateral ventricles communicate with each other and with the third ventricle (1783) The clinical significance of the interventricular foramen of Monro is based on disorders of the "third" circulation, that is, the circulation of the cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF), as described by Retzius, Key, Weed, Cushing, and others. The CSF stems mainly from the choroid plexus in the lateral ventricles, passes through the foramen of Monro into the third, and thence through the aqueduct of Sylvius into the fourth ventricle, and on into the subarachnoid space via the foramina of Magendie and Luschka. The foramen of Monro is one of the narrows, liable to obstruction by any pathological process in, or near, the third ventricle. Such an obstruction will lead to dilatation of one, or more likely both, lateral ventricles, with symptoms of raised intracranial pressure: headache and vomiting, disorders of consciousness, eye movement and pupillary disorders, as described two and a half centuries ago by Whytt and Monro.Expanding lesions at this site are the various gliomas of the third ventricle; more chronic processes are upward extensions or pituitary tumors and craniopharyngiomas, which may cause pituitary of hypothalamic disorders en route, and rarely akinetic mutism, before leading to symptoms and signs of raised intracranial pressure. The most benign lesions are colloid cysts. It is ironic that one such cyst was found post mortem in the third ventricle of Cushing, one of the pioneers of surgery in this territory. 29 A heavy smoker, Cushing died of vascular disease before the cyst had become large enough to obstruct his foramen of Monro. References 1 Lindeboom GA. Inleiding tot de geschiedenis der geneeskunde (7e editie, bewerkt door MJ van Lieburg). Rotterdam, Erasmus Publishing, 1993 2 McHenry LC. Garrison’s History of Neurology. Springfield (IS): Thomas; 1969. 3 Norman JM. Morton’s Medical bibliography. 5th edition. Aldershot (Hants): Scolar Press; 1991. 4 Isler H. The circle of Willis. In: Koehler PJ, Bruyn GW, Pearce JMS. Neurological eponyms. New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 56-62. 5 Isler H. Thomas Willis 1652-1675, Doctor and Scientist. New York, Hafner Publishing Company, 1968. 6 Dewhurst K. Willis' Oxford Casebook. Oxford, Sandford Publications, 1981. 7 Willis T. Cerebri Anatome: Cui accessit Nervorum Descriptio et Usus. Londini 1664, types Jac. Flesher, Impensis Jo. Martyn & Ja Allestry. Oxoniae, e theatro Sheldoniano, 1672. 8 Willis T. The anatomy of the brain and the nerves. Feindel W. (Ed.). Facsimile after the Englished edition by Samuel Pordage (1681), Vol.II, Figura 1a, Montreal, McGill University Press, 1965. 9 Hughes JT. Thomas Willis (1621-1675). His life and work. (Eponymists in Medicine). London, Royal Society of Medicine, 1991. 10 Isler H. Thomas Willis' two chapters on headache of 1672: a first attempt to apply the "New Science" to this topic. Headache 1986;26:95 - 8 11 Beukers H. The Sylvian Fissure. In: Koehler PJ, Bruyn GW, Pearce JMS. Neurological eponyms. New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 51-5. 12.Baumann ED. François dele Boë Sylvius. Leiden, Brill, 1949. Cf for Sylvius’ physiology concepts Beukers H. Acid Spirits and Alkaline Salts: the Iatrochemistry of Franciscus dele Boë, Sylvius. Sartoniana, 1999;11, and for his pathology concepts Leich H. Franciscus Sylvius’ Lehre von den Schärfen. Stuttgart, 1993. 13 Haller A. Elementa physiologiae corporis humani, vol IV, Lausanne, 1762:67. 14 Morgagni JB. Epistolae anatomicae duae. Leiden, 1728:34 15 Schacht L. Oratio Funebris in Obitum Nobillissimi, Clarissimi, expertissimi D. Francisci dele Boë, Sylvii. In: dele Boë, Sylvius F. Opera medica. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1679. 16.Bartholinus C. Institutiones anatomicae. Lugdunum Batavorum, apud Franciscum Hackium, 1641. 17.Clarke E, O'Malley CD. The human brain and spinal cord. 2nd ed. San Francisco, Norman, 1996, pp.43-44.) 18.Haller A. Bibliotheca anatomica, vol. I. Zürich, 1774:389. 19 Bynum WF, Porter R. Companion encyclopedia of the history of medicine. London, Routledge, 1997, p.155 20 Kooijmans L. Gevaarlijke kennis. Inzicht en angst in de dagen van Jan Swammerdam. Houten, Bohn, Stafleu van Loghum, 2007, p.63. 21 King L. Introduction. In: Haller H. First lines of physiology. Translated from the correct Latin edition. Reprint of the 1786 edition. New York & London, Johnson Reprint Corporation1966. 22 Koehler PJ. Neuroscience in the work of Boerhaave and Haller. In: Whitaker H, Finger S, Smith C. Brain, mind and medicine: essays in eighteenth century neuroscience. Springer, 2007, pp. 213-231. 23 Jellinek EH. The foramen of Monro. In: Koehler PJ, Bruyn GW, Pearce JMS. Neurological eponyms. New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 21-8. 24Ashworth JR. Charles Darwin as a student at Edinburgh 1825-7. Proc Roy Soc Edinb 1935;55:97-113 25 Monro A. Observations on the Structure and Functions of the Nervous System. London & Edinburgh; Wm Creech, 1783 26 Clayton M. Leonardo da Vinci: The Anatomy of Man. Houston, Little Brown, 1997 27 Monro A. Three Treatises on the Brain, the Eye and the Ear illustrated by tables. Edinburgh, Bell & Bradfute, 1797 28 Cushing H. Studies in intracranial Physiology and Surgery. London, Oxford University Press, 1926 29 Fulton J. Harvey Cushing. Springfield, CC Thomas, 1946Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-35745159351592774412008-03-28T14:07:00.000-07:002008-03-28T14:09:39.618-07:00Penis and Breast Massage Artilugia<a href="http://imagecache2.allposters.com/images/pic/PF_New/102008/3135178~Zabludowsky-s-Pump-for-Self-Massage-of-the-Penis-and-of-the-Breast-Posters.jpg"><img style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 400px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="http://imagecache2.allposters.com/images/pic/PF_New/102008/3135178~Zabludowsky-s-Pump-for-Self-Massage-of-the-Penis-and-of-the-Breast-Posters.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><div><a href="http://www.allposters.es/View_HighZoomResPop.asp?apn=3135178&imgloc=25-2593-12ZVD00Z.jpg&imgwidth=910&imgheight=659"></a><br /><br /><div></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-56562582784193723742008-02-17T04:32:00.000-08:002008-02-17T04:35:44.024-08:00Advert For Day, Son & Hewitt's Stockbreeders Medicine Chest<a href="http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/mediastore/014/060/014EVA000000000U06097000[SVC1].JPG"><img style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 400px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/mediastore/014/060/014EVA000000000U06097000[SVC1].JPG" border="0" /></a><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div><a href="http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/mediastore/014/060/014EVA000000000U06097V00[SVC2].JPG"><img style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 400px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/mediastore/014/060/014EVA000000000U06097V00[SVC2].JPG" border="0" /></a> This is an advertisement for Day, Son and Hewitt’s medicine for animals, specifically farm animals such as horses, cattle, calves, sheep and lambs. Up until the late 18th century the farrier was the major figure in animal medicine. Farriers had knowledge of equine diseases, remedies and treatments. In 1791 the Veterinary College was set up in response to the demand for a better understanding of animal diseases. As knowledge and expertise grew animals were given better care and a range of medicines and treatments were developed. Day, Son and Hewitt are still making animal medicines today.<br /><br /><div></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-29180259477797032302008-02-17T04:30:00.000-08:002008-02-17T04:31:44.261-08:00Advert for Mrs Winslow's Soothing Syrup<a href="http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/mediastore/014/050/014EVA000000000U05095000[SVC2].JPG"><img style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 400px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/mediastore/014/050/014EVA000000000U05095000[SVC2].JPG" border="0" /></a><br /><div>This is an advertisement for ‘Mrs Winslow’s Soothing Syrup’, this medicine was given to babies to soothe them when they were teething. It softened gums and reduced inflammation and was widely used. One problem was that it actually contained Opium. During the 19th century Opium was frequently used, poets such as Byron and Shelly indulged in ‘laudanum’, an alcoholic drink containing opium and medicines such as ‘Mrs Winslow’s Soothing Syrup’ were used to treat every sort of illness from colds to heart disease. The addictive properties of Opium were eventually recognised and it was banned, except for use in medicine.</div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3630327253394377176.post-24400953286041044632008-02-17T04:28:00.000-08:002008-02-17T04:30:18.610-08:00Advert for Jacob Townsend's Sarsparilla<img style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 400px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/mediastore/014/050/014EVA000000000U05083000[SVC2].JPG" border="0" /><br />Evanion Collection of Ephemera<br />This is an advertisement for Dr Jacob Townsend's sarsaparilla medicine. During the 19th century medicines such as this, were taken for all manner of aliments from arthritis and skin disease to psoriasis and leprosy. It was actually widely used in China as a treatment for syphilis. It was also taken by women to improve their chances of becoming pregnant.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0